Index

Due to the use of para id indexing, indexed terms that span two pages (e.g., 52–53) may, on occasion, appear on only one of those pages.

Tables and figures are indicated by t and f following the page number

Abu Ghraib294, 427–28

accessorial liability for complicity in war crimes76–77

Adis Ababa massacre, Ethiopia859

Afghanistan
civil war89
mortality estimates data496
profitability of violence170
reduced use of child soldiers354–55
rejection of criminal investigation of crimes545–46
transitional processes in597
use of child solders354–55, 356
use of community-based healing processes704

Africa. See also Algeria; See also Angola; See also Ethiopia; See also Rwanda/Rwandan Genocide; See also South Africa
Central African Republic82–83, 214, 354–55, 445
child mortality data484
colonial expansion/violent atrocities167–68
Convention for the Protection and Assistance of Internally Displaced Persons in Africa (the Kampala Convention)536–37, 548–49, 550
customary justice practices704
democratic practices191n.11
German South West Africa430–31
Herero genocide, German South West Africa427–28, 430–31
Islamic State of Iraq and Syria attacks384
Organization for African Unity’s Convention Governing the Specific Aspects of Refugee Problems in Africa541–42
racist tropes of New Barbarism162
Southwest Africa427–28
state-sponsored mass violence174
sub-Saharan Africa161–62, 707, 779, 794
targeting of tribes in63
trans-Atlantic slave trade28, 739–40, 744
use of child soldiers355, 361
violence in sub-Saharan Africa161–62
West Africa515–16

African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child367, 367n.33

African Court of Justice and Human Rights396–97

African National Congress386

African Union’s mandate for Somalia (AMISOM)452–53

African World War395–96

Alawites107–8

Albright, Madeline101–2

Aleppo, Syria1

Algeria
enforced disappearances261
Front de Libération Nationale375
Islamist insurgency in214
1950s war260–61
systematic repression of civilians586
UN Working Group on Enforced or Involuntary Disappearances list261

al-Qaeda151–52, 360, 373, 384

American Civil War585

American Indian and Alaska Native (AIAN) communities562, 567–68

Amin, Idi100–1, 621–22

amnesties676–83
for Angola war crimes19–20, 783–87, 790, 794
arguments for and against676, 679–80
The Belfast Guidelines on Amnesty and Accountability678
blanket/unlimited amnesty677
in Colombia593–94
comparison with pardons676–77
compatibility with international, domestic law680–81
conditional amnesties677–78
conditions for a legitimate amnesty682–83
definitions676–77
Geneva Convention, Additional Protocol II, promotion of680
impact on truth commissions686–87
interactions wtih International Criminal Court682
Inter-American Court of Human Rights opposition to/challenges of594n.36, 680–82
International Committee of the Red Cross view on680
in Latin America272, 683
in Northern Ireland593
opposition by the Inter-American Court of Human Rights594n.36
Peace Agreement Database on682–83
positive vs. negative views on676
post-World War II global data593
Princeton Principles on Universal Jurisdiction on678
role in restorative justice593
seeming unfairness for serious offenders64–65
in South Africa593, 687–88
Special Court for Sierra Leone on679
stealth Holocaust-related amnesties272
Transitional Justice Database on682–83
truth commissions and18, 66, 677–78, 684–85
in Uganda593
United Nations position on678, 679, 680–81
in Uruguay594n.36

Amnesty International261, 273–74, 765
“17–Point Program for a Convention on Crimes against Humanity629n.39

Angola775–96
“a limpeza“ (clean-up), masscres and tortures776n.3
Angolan Civil War (1975-2002)19–20, 775–76, 777–82, 785–86, 791
commemoration/memorialization of791–92
DDR programs for child soldiers783
forced recruitment of child soldiers355, 779–80
“forgetting approach” of20
Frente de Libertação de Cabinda (FLEC)776
Frente Nacional de Libertação de Angola (FNLA)777–79, 785–86, 791–92
granting of amnesty783–87, 790, 794
increasing levels of war crimes776
internally displaced persons (IDPs) data776, 781, 790, 793
Movimento Popular de Libertação de Angola (MPLA)777–80, 782–83, 784–87, 790, 791–92, 794
providing knowledge about, in schools783
reactions fot the crimes791–94
União Nacional para a Independência total de Angola (UNITA)777–81, 782–83, 784–85, 789, 790–92, 794, 796
violence against civilians169, 173
War of Independence (1961-1974)776

Annan, Kofi
on child soldiers366
role in putting R2P into practice442–43

anthropological theories of crime52

Arab Spring443

Arameans66–67

Arendt, Hannah284, 293, 331, 425–26, 731–32

Argentina
amnesties for police/security officers272
death flights (1970s, early 1980s)84
Dirty War (1975-1981)219–20
enforced disappearances from256–57
exhumation of mass graves497–98
prosecution of mass atrocities617
repressive regime in256
role of justice cascade in395–96
terror apparatus collaborations258n.9
Truth Commission report587

Aristotle84, 474

armed conflict
Bosnia/Herzegovina38

armed conflicts60, 119 See also international armed conflict; See also non-international armed conflict
collapse of law and order during120
conflict analysis106, 153–54
entrepreneurs of violence and149–50
the environment as a tool of516
the environment as a victim of517–18
the environment as cause of514–16
framing/constructing of “the Other,”153–54
groupness/social categories144
human rights during57, 124–25, 128
identity groups143–45
non-crime-related violations124
non-international armed conflict30, 82n.12, 127–28, 544–45, 881
permissibility of killing in127–28
power dynamics of atrocities141–55
regulation of by international humanitarian law28, 115
right to life and122
role of alliances151–53
rules for protection of cultural buildings88–89
states vs. non-state actors142
structural violence and146–48, 565–66n.18, 571, 602–3
violence as performance and148–49
war vs. peace dichotomies147

Armenian Genocide4, 31, 42–43, 98–99, 104–31, 427–28

Arms Trade Treaty (2013)448

atrocious organizations12, 255–74 See also corporate involvement in atrocity crimes
administrative violence by258–59
cleansing operations267–68, 269–70
definition/characteristics of257–58, 258n.10, 262
enforced disappearance issues256–57, 258–59, 260, 261, 262–63, 266–67, 268, 271, 273
extra-judicial killings256, 258–59, 262–63, 272, 273–74
factionalism and power struggles267
foot soldiers268
forcing of confessions250, 251–52, 264
Gestapo (Secret State Police) (Germany)256, 260, 265, 396–97
gold-collar commanders268
gray-collar workers270
Guatemala National Police262, 266
hierarchical order of groups268–70
historical/contemporary crime patterns260–61
mass detentions by258–59, 260–61, 262, 263–64, 266, 267–68, 269–70, 272, 842, 858–59
modus operandi of262–64
normalization of atrocity crimes262
repressive operations by256–62, 263, 264, 266–67
role of institutions of criminal justice263
role of police, security forces, criminal justice agencies258–59
South African police force237–38, 258–59, 260–61, 267
SS (Schutzstaffel) (Germany)76–77, 79, 86, 256, 260, 263–64, 265, 269n.36, 272–73
targeted persecutions of262–63
transformation from normal to atrocious265–68
types of crimes committed by257–59
white-collar bureaucrats268, 269

Atrocity Crimes Framework (United Nations)6, 255–56

atrocity studies7–8

atrocity triangle12, 304–6, 305f, 307, 311–12

Australia
commemorative rituals768
customary justice practices704
off-shore detention center394

Austria, recruitment/training of child soldiers356

authoritarianism/authoritarian regimes78, 89–90
Bogart’s comment on193
collaboration with corporations395–96, 399–400, 407–8, 409, 417
in Latin America260–61, 262–63, 399–400
repression in the Soviet Union224
“right-wing authoritarianism,”222
role in instigating mass violence289
in Rwanda346

autocracy192–93

autonomous self462–63, 468–69

banality of evil284, 293, 425–26

banality of opportunism9–10, 86–87, 91

Barbie, Klaus282

The Belfast Guidelines on Amnesty and Accountability678

Beltrán-Leyva (Mexican drug cartel)379

Bessarabia219–20

Bettelheim, Bruno470

Bijeljina massacre, Bosnia148–49

biological experimentation on civilians30

Blackwater Security Consulting373

blood diamonds167–68, 169–70

Boko Haram452

Bolsonaro, Jair588

Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH)
atrocity crime reports in267
Bijeljina massacre, Bosnia148–49
categories of death484
civil registration data collection489
conflict-related deaths database495
criminal enterprises in265
data from exhumations497
electoral lists data collection495
five categories of death (1992-1995)484, 496
ICTY population project, Office of the Prosecutor500–5
legal vs. political solutions36–37
lists of missing and dead persons501
multiple systems estimation data499
numbers of death486–87
Srebrenica massacre39, 134n.91, 135, 441, 484, 497, 501–4, 504t, 628–29, 659–60
Srebrenica memorial, Bosnia767
torture in38, 39, 265–66, 269–70
U.S. failure to prevent/react to103
use of child soldiers356
use of sports stadiums for detention430–31
war death estimates486–87

Bosnian Book of the Dead (BBD)57, 496

Brandt, Willy586–87

Brazil
amnesties for police/security officers272
establishment of truth commissions683–84
exhumation of mass graves497–98
repressive regime in256

British East India Company395

Burma, use of child solders356

Burundi genocide100
enforced disappearances261
miscategorization of atrocities in144
reduced use of child soldiers354–55
truth commissions694

bystander continuum13, 308f

bystanders (side-standers, stand-asiders). See also individuals as bystanders
atrocity triangle and12, 304–6, 305f, 307, 311–12
bystander continuum13, 308f
bystander effect313–15
classification of309–11
description83
individuals as303–24
types of309–11

Calley, William106–7

Cambodia/Cambodian genocide. See also Khmer Rouge
commemorative rituals768
communist mass violence processes248–52
deaths of the Chaims103–4
delay in U.S. intervention in36–37
detention center S-21263
excess deaths data485, 491
Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia97, 263–64, 282, 393, 620n.7, 649, 909–10n.35
interrogations under torture264
Khmer Rouge’s atrocities in79–80, 97–98, 214, 248–52, 256–57, 258
Khmer Rouge’s “super great leap forward” in12, 248–49
“killing fields” tactics/violent deaths data499, 586
mortality estimate method58
population pyramid (2000)493f
torture in251, 264, 434, 663–64
Vietnamese deaths in103–4

Canada
customary justice practices704
Indigenous law in709
Truth and Reconciliation Commission760
Vancouver Principles353

Cape Town Principles, definition of child soldiers352

capture-recapture research method55–56, 59–60

CAT. See Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment of Punishment

causal analysis (U.S. State Failure Task Force)106–8

CEDAW. See Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women

Central African Republic82–83, 149–50, 214, 354–55, 445

Central Asia704

Centro de Investigación y Educación Popular (CINEP) (NGO)814

Chad, use of child soldiers354–55

Chaims, deaths in Cambodia103–4

Chechnya, use of child soldiers356

“check the box” approach to transitional justice598

child mortality in Africa484

children associated with armed forces. See child soldiers

Child Soldier International354–55

child soldiers5–6, 12, 13–14
advocacy groups on354–55
in Angola355, 779–80
Cape Town Principles, definition352
in Chechnya356
Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers354–55, 356
in Colombia355–56, 357–58, 366
disarmament, demobilization, reintegration (DDR) programming359–60
Geneva Conventions prohibition351–52
global realities/global demobilization programs354–56
in Guatemala355–56
Hollywood documentary films on365–66
increased Western media interest363–66
in Lord’s Resistance Army, Uganda332, 353–54
New Barbarism and161–62
Paris Principles broadened designation352–53
persistence of reductive portrayals of366
post-war challenges for girl soldiers362–63
re-integration of358–59
rights violations during/following armed conflict357–58
Roméo Dallaire Child Soldiers Initiative353
stigma and community rejection360–61
term derivation/variations353–54
treatment as victims352–54
UN Convention on the Rights of the Child prohibition352, 357
unique victimization experiences of girls361–62, 365
Vancouver Principles focus on prevention353
various roles of356
Western media/heroic representations of365
Western media portrayals of363–65

Chile
amnesties for police/security officers272
enforced disappearances from256–57
establishment of truth commissions587
exhumation of mass graves497–98
Museum of Memory and Human Rights760
public executions in258–59
repressive regime in256
torture by the DINA in isolated basements84
2003 Truth Commission272–73

China
corporate involvement in genocide394
Cultural Revolution263
Great Leap Forward244–45
killings/state-induced starvation586
mass detentions262
meso-level pattern of mass killings243
systematic repression586
use of environment as a tool of war516

Christian Assyrians66–67

Christian Jews62–63

civil wars
in Afghanistan89
in Angola19–20, 775–76, 779, 781–82, 785–86, 791
in Bangladesh491
in Burundi565
in Central African Republic214
in Côte d’Ivoire444
creation of displacement camps245
in Democratic Republic of Congo170–72, 414
in El Salvador651
in England89
findings of macro-level studies168–69
in Guatemala214, 259
in Indonesia399–400
in Iraq384
in Ireland377–78
in Latin America20, 399–400
in Lebanon89
in Liberia89
micro-level studies on resources, rebel governance, atrocity crimes168–69
multifunctional role of violence in151
natural resources and167
New Barbarism and162–63
in Papua New Guinea399–400
in Rwanda334, 340–41, 344
in Sierra Leone224, 434–35
in Sudan433
in Syria164, 224, 515
in Uganda710–11
in the United States29–30, 89, 365, 430–31, 492

climate change
natural resources and159–61, 163, 164–66, 175–76
urbanization and11

Clinton, Bill98, 497–98

Coalition for the International Criminal Court619n.6

Cockburn, P.151–52

cognitive dissonance285, 290, 316–17, 832

Cold War
defining ideologies of778–79
impact of collapse of Soviet Union36–37
influences on military/security/police force practices and trainings260–61
post-Cold War era, legal definitions36–38
post-Cold War norm cascade, proliferation of atrocity crime trials732–33
post-Cold War organized violence210–11
post-Cold War upsurge in mass atrocity crimes14, 373
post-Cold War violence in Indonesia214
realpolitik-induced silence of27

collective memory202, 568, 761, 762, 763–64, 807–8

collective nature of mass atrocity76–77

Collier, Paul169

Colombia, war crime, atrocities, and resistance801–20
Center for Historical Memory (CHM)810
Commission for the Clarification of Truth, Coexistence, and No Repetition (CEV)818
comparative perspective atrocities801–3, 819–20
crimes by paramilitary groups257–58
decapitation of victims809–10
displaced persons data515, 515n.11
emergence of paramilitarism807
enforced disappearances256–57
ethnocide/genocidal assault against Indigenous groups813
exhumation of mass graves497–98
“False positives,”813
Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia (FARC)652, 694, 801, 803, 806, 808, 811, 813, 817–18, 819, 820
granting of amnesties593–94, 694
homicide rate805f
Indigenous Quintin Lame Armed Movement (MAQL)806
key atrocity episodes812–13
massacres801–2, 808, 809f, 815, 819
Medellín and Cali cartels drug trafficking807–8
membership in International Criminal Court818
memorialization759
National Center for Historical Memory (CNMH)816–17
National Commission on Reparation and Reconciliation816–17
National Liberation Army (ELN)806
19th of April Movement (M-19)806, 816
patterns of atrocities808–11
peace process600–1, 694
political/narco-related violence in776
politicide of the Patriotic Union Party (UP)812
Popular Liberation Army (EPL)806
resistance to atrocities/institutional and community reactions814–19
role of justice cascade in395–96
role of women/LGBTI organizations in peace processes600–1
rural area concentration of crimes260–61
selective political violence in776
Self-Defense Forces of Córdoba and Urabá(ACCU)807
“social cleansing” campaigns813
Special Jurisdiction for Peace809–10, 817
torture of civilians809–10
transitional justice program20, 597
truth and reconciliation commissions498, 694
United Self-Defense Forces of Colombia (AUC)807
unresolved cases of disappearance260–61
use of child soldiers355–56, 357–58, 366
use of sexual violence811
victimizers and victims806–8
Victims and Land Restitution Law816–17
violence against civilians169

Commission for the Identification of the Truth, Coexistence, and Non-Repetition (Colombia)694

Commission of Inquiry into Post-Election Violence (CIPEV) (Kenya)62

Commission on the Investigation of Disappeared Persons, Truth and Reconciliation Act (Nepal)693–94

Committee to Protect Journalists765

Communist Party of Cuba375

Complex Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (CPTSD)914–15

Comprehensive System of Truth, Justice, Reparation, and Non-Repetition (Colombia)694

conceptual disruptors27, 43–44, 45

Conference on War and National Responsibility523–24

confessions, forced false250, 251–52, 264

conflict analysis106, 153–54

conflict entrepreneurs
declaratory international criminal procedure and82–83
defined80
exhortation of violence by84

Congo Free State5

control theory87–88

Convention against Discrimination in Education (UNESCO)123

Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment of Punishment (CAT)117, 122

conventional crime
comparison to extraordinary international crimes86–91
defined77
types of78

Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (UNESCO)123

Convention Concerning the Status of Refugees Coming from Germany540

Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded in Armies in the Field (Geneva Convention)30n.5

Convention for the Protection and Assistance of Internally Displaced Persons in Africa (the Kampala Convention)536–37, 548–49

Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW)117–18, 123–24

Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Genocide (1948) (United Nations)32–34, 38–39, 143–44, 447–48
adoption of legal definition of genocide4, 104, 130–31, 189
Article II (article 2)33–34, 189n.5
Article VIII447–48
description as a crime suppression treaty129
emphasis on membership in specifically defined groups97–98
Ethiopia as leading protagonist of803, 872
on the forcible transfer of children from one group to another543–44
identification of vulnerable groups107–8
as ill-fit within the international human rights system129
inclusion of ecocide524–25
inclusion of rape41, 909
intent of38–39
Nazi Holocaust association37–38, 98–99
non-state actors and105
potential for adverse effects on political will, civilian protection43–44
scope of129
UN General Assembly adoption of29n.4, 32–33

Convention Relating to the International Status of Refugees (1933)540

corporate involvement in atrocity crimes393–418
bystander corporations303n.1
case studies: Democratic Republic of the Congo414–16
case studies: Holocaust/Nazi Germany411–14
collaboration with authoritarian regimes395–96, 399–400, 407–8, 409, 417
collective actors in a collective enterprise396–98
collective criminality theory and396–97
corporate complicity data, actors and partners405t
corporate fraud78
crimes against humanity401, 402t
crime scripts of406–10
criminal charges at Nuremberg Trials395
criminological aspects of258
gains/benefits data409t
genocide394, 403t
German corporations395
global regions data, 20th/21st century400f
in the Holocaust256, 399n.13
host and home countries of corporations401f
industry sectors data404t
Malabo Protocol and396–97, 416
multi-national corporations375
role in shaping legitimation of actions, choices258
role of justice cascade in accountability norms394, 395–96, 416
time span of involvement401
types of indirect involvement data407t
types of state-corporate crime397, 405, 413–14, 416–17
types/prevalence of crimes398–405
war crimes402t

COVID-19 pandemic492

CRC. See United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (Article 38) (CRC)

crime of aggression6, 35–36
defined/Rome Statute6, 35–36
as focus of the International Military Tribunals35–36
historic development of35–36

crimes against humanity2–6, 34–35 See also enforced disappearance; See also enslavement; See also rape; See also sexual slavery; See also sexual violence; See also torture
causes of213
corporate involvement401, 402t
defined, Article 7, Rome Statute35, 342n.17
description145–46
distinction from genocide/war crimes88–89
enforced disappearance5, 116, 123
in Ethiopia854–58
historic development of34–35
human rights and133–34
in Indonesia829–47
large-scale/widespread/systematic violence5, 39, 44, 145–46
limited doctrinal controversies629
misuse of data on498
persecution as121–22
role of non-state actors in221, 377
shared features with war crimes35
skeptical perspectives on213–16
triggers for854–55

crime scripts, of corporate involvement406–10, 407t, 409t

crimes of obedience285, 293

criminal justice system (CJS)54

Criminal Law Forum619n.4

criminological domains of study
etiology52, 60–63
prevalence52, 57–60
reaction52, 64–66
victims/societies59, 66–69

criminology
description7
supranational criminology7–8, 285–86, 461, 795

Croatia, exhumation of mass graves497–98

Crude Mortality Ratio (CMR)58

Cultural Revolution, China214

customary justice703–20
applicability to atrocity crimes706
common characteristics of707
defined/described703–7
distinction between law and justice703n.1, 705
in Fiji Islands712–14
future prospects in application to atrocity crimes718–20
gamba spirit ceremony, Mozambique705
global practice of704
invisible difficulties714–17
legal pluralism phenomenon708–9
relationship with formal law708–9
role in community life707
transitional justice and706–7
in Uganda706, 710–12

Dallaire, Romeo110

Darfur, Sudan genocide
air attacks on villages430
al-Bashir’s indirect genocides430–31
atrocity crimes by Janjaweed militia fighters245, 425, 429, 443–44
enforced disappearances261
group-making through violence/fear of violence149–50
meso-level dynamics247–48
state-level coordination of425
targeting of African villages63
U.S. death toll survey for59
U.S. failure to prevent/react to103
use of child soldiers354–55
use of satellites for mapping burning of villages60

dark number crimes
description54
double dark number57
triple dark number60, 69

DDR. See disarmament, demobilization, reintegration (DDR) programming

Delalić, Zejnil38

delegitimation process272–73

Delić, Hazim38

Demjanjuk, John76–77

democide42–43, 189

democracy
dictatorships and191–94
explanation of atrocity crimes in196–97
Freedom House index data on decline187, 192–93, 193n.16
illiberal democracy193
non-state actors in191
term derivation191
war crimes191–94

Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC)
civil wars/various related conflicts414
corporate involvement in atrocity crimes395–96, 414–16
crime scripts for involvement in atrocity crimes416
DRC v. Uganda legal case127, 135
exhumation of mass graves497–98
First and Second Congo Wars414–15
Lubanga judgment and515–16
massacre by the Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA)382
Ntaganda’s leadership82n.12
perpetration of atrocities342
population-based surveys60
rape by soldiers653
reduced use of child soldiers354–55
resource-related greed in170
truth commission693
UN approach to crises in445
UN’s multidimensional peace operations452
use of child soldiers354–55
use of terror tactics170

Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) (USAID)66–67

dictatorships (dictatorial regimes). See also authoritarianism/authoritarian regimes; See also totalitarianism/totalitarian regimes
in Africa865
Arab Spring and399–400
in Argentina395–96, 686
in Chile34n.15, 736n.43, 760
creation of crises by the elite199
democracies and191–94
diverging definitions of188–89
in Egypt34
explanation of atrocity crimes in196–97
in Guatemala267–68, 879
Hutu dictatorship in Egypt104–5
in Latin America34, 262–63, 283, 417, 865
in Libya444
life integrity violations and190–92, 191n.9, 194–95, 196, 201–2
in Myanmar399–400
non-state actors in191
reasons for negative opinion of187
repression and187, 189, 190–91, 193–97, 199, 200–1
spectrum/range of193–94
term derivation191–92

Dillon, Michael148

disarmament, demobilization, reintegration (DDR) programming
in Angola783
of child soldiers354, 359–60
critiques of360
need for expanded programs368
in Sierra Leone359–60
Vancouver Princples368

disciplinary silos11, 159–60

discrimination-based violence88

displaced persons. See internally displaced persons (IDPs)

doctrines of ethnic superiority107
justification of killings107

donor fatigue111–12

double-blind randomized controlled trials53

Douglas, Lawrence595–96

Downes, D.87

Draft Codes of Crimes against the Peace and Security of Mankind (the Code)525–26, 526n.45, 528

drug cartel wars148

Dunant, Henry29–30

Durban Racism Conference (United Nations’ World Conference against Racisim, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance)739

Dutch East India Company395

duty to rescue doctrine322–23, 322n.41

early warning systems of genocides, politicides. See also predicting/early warning (EW) systems of genocides, politicides (geno/politicides)
Forum of Early Warning and Early Response110
goals of110–11
Humanitarian Early Warning System110
U.S. State Failure Task Force models105–9

East Timor/East Timor genocide
East Timor Special Panels82–83
exhumation of mass graves497–98
transitional processes in597

Eav, Kaing Guek282

ecocide511–28 See also environment
as atrocity crime523–26
Convention on Ecocidal War, Sweden524
definitions523–24, 526
ICC statement on512
impact of inhumane weapons512
impact of the human imprint on the environment513
practices and prosecutions522–23
Principle 24, Rio Declaration on the Environment and Development511–18
Vietnam War as524
war crimes and the environment521–22

“economics gap” in genocide studies159–60

ECtHR. See European Court of Human Rights

Egypt34, 107–8, 261, 543–44

Eichmann, Adolf282, 425–26, 543n.31

El Salvador
deaths from armed conflicts490–91
enforced disappearances from256–57
intergenerational cultural transmission566
rapes/massacres651
truth commissions683–84
truth-seeking bodies in683–84
use of child soldiers355–56
validation of amnesty laws680
women-driven transitional justice initiatives600

enforced disappearance5, 116, 123, 133, 256–57, 258–59, 260, 261, 262–63, 266–67, 268, 271, 273 See also forced migration (forced displacement)

enforced prostitution664

enforced sterilization402t, 664

enslavement5, 35, 101, 126–27, 381, 382–83, 664–65, 836–37, 840–41

entrepreneurs of violence149–50

environment. See also ecocide; See also natural resources
African Union’s criminalization for crimes against396–97
and atrocity crimes, future research175
as cause of armed conflicts514–16
environmental determinism159–60
environmental harm in the Anthropocene era512–13
impact of genocide and civil war violence175
international criminal law’s limitations in protectiing523–24
interplay of dictatorial regimes and198
resource conflicts514
resource scarcity and162
role of corporations in exploitation406, 409–10
Rome Statute environmental crime perspective prohibitions519–21
as a tool of armed conflicts516
as a victim of armed conflicts517–18
war crimes and521–22

environmental determinsm159–60

environmental harm in the Anthropocene era512–13

Erdemović, Dražen82–83

Erdoğan, Recep Tayyip588

Ethiopia853–72
Adis Ababa massacre859
Anuak-Nuwer trials868
atrocity crime trials in Ethiopia865–69
atrocity crime trials outside of Ethiopia869–71
child soldiers in366
Coalition for Unity and Democracy (CUD)868
colonial violence era858–59
Communist violence era859–61
crimes against humanity in854–58
Criminal Code (2004)857
death by hunger/famine861
ethnic violence862–64
Federal High Court (FHC)868
forced deportations858–59
international/domestic reactions864–71
Italy’s atrocities against858–59
kushuk campaign860
mass atrocity time period (1935-2019)858
mass detentions858–59
mass graves858–59
punishment of perpetrators20–21
rape858–59
“Rape of Ethiopia,”858–59
ratification of the UN Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide855–56
Red Terror/Red Terror Trials860, 865–66, 870–71
Revolutionary Defense Squads860
Special Prosecutor’s Office (SPO)865–70, 872
torture in853–54, 860, 862–63, 865, 867, 870
transitional justice in20–21
waves of ethnic/intercommunal violence853–54
White Terror (guerilla-style urban warfare)860

ethnic cleansing
in Bosnia and Herzegovina500n.29, 628
definitions6, 143–44, 856–57
in Ethiopia853–54
forced migration and535
in the former Yugoslavia6
mass rape and650
of Muslim population by the Anti-Balaka546
perpetrator’s belief in rightness of84
rape as an instrumental of432n.12
rationale for targeting certain groups214
responsibility to protect (R2P) doctrine and441–42, 549, 550, 582n.2
by Russian Federation of ethnic Georgians435

ethnic superiority doctrines107

European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR)
Al-Skeini and Al-Jedda cases124–25
examination of relevant IHL cases124–25

evidentiary impediments635–37

exclusionary ideologies106–7, 216, 223–24

exhumations of mass graves497–98

Extended Genealogical Method488

extra-judicial killings256, 258–59, 262–63, 272, 273–74

Extraordinary African Chambers649, 659n.23, 669

Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (ECCC)97, 263–64, 282, 393, 620n.7, 649, 909–10n.35

Êzidîs (Yazidis) genocide. See Iraq, Êzidîs (Yazidis) genocide

false confessions250, 251–52, 264

La Familia Michoacana (Mexican drug cartel)379

Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front (El Salvador)651

Fariss, C. J.259

fascism27, 104–5, 107

Fearon, J. D.145

Fein, Helen129, 190, 285

Fellowship of Reconciliation (NGO)814

Ferencz, Ben620

fertility patterns, impacts of conflict on67

field and trend monitoring102

Fiji Islands, customary justice practices712–14

forced abortion664

forced marriage40, 536–37

forced migration (forced displacement)16, 20, 21–22, 255–56, 258–59 See also internally displaced persons (IDPs)
Armenian Arrangement539–40
causes of16
criminalization of542–45
global data (2020)16, 535
historical treatment of537–38
Huguenot flight from France (1685)537–38
human rights abuses and535
internally displaced persons58, 429, 547–49
international response to536
misuse of data on498
“Nansen Passports,”539
Organization for African Unity’s Convention Governing the Specific Aspects of Refugee Problems in Africa541–42
Refugee Convention (1951) protections535–36, 541–42
refugees/refugee protection539
role of international tribunals, International Criminal Court545–47
Russian Arrangement539–40
shifting international response to536–37
United Kingdom, Aliens Acts (1793, 1798)538
UN Nations High Commissioner for Refugees Statute536, 541, 547

forced pregnancy402t

forced silence316n.28

Ford, Gerald678

fored nudity650

Forum of Early Warning and Early Response (FEWER)110

Fourth Geneva Convention (1949)351

“Framework for Analysis of Atrocity Crimes” (United Nations)3, 255–56

France
BNP Pasibas Bank’s involvement in Rwandan genocide394
recruitment/training of child soldiers356

French Revolution100–1

Frente de Libertação de Cabinda (FLEC) (Angola)776

Frente de Libertação de Moçambique (Mozambique)366

Frente Nacional de Libertação de Angola (FNLA)777–79, 785–86, 791–92

Front de Libération Nationale, Algeria375

Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia (FARC)355–56, 652, 694, 801, 803, 806, 808, 811, 813, 817–18, 819, 820

Gacaca courts79–80, 294n.22, 330n.2, 343, 343n.18, 344, 345, 596–97, 705

Gaddafi, Muammar444

gang rape653, 654

gang violence (gang-related delinquency)78, 87–88

Garton Ash, Timothy583, 584

Gbagbo, Laurent444

Geneva Conventions
Additional Protocols30, 30n.9, 351–52, 593, 680
adoption of481–82
Common Article 1447–48
Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded, Sick, and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea630n.41, 656–57n.11
Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded in Armies in the Field30n.5, 630n.41, 656–57n.11
Convention Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War30n.8, 630n.41, 656–57n.11
Convention Relative to the Protection of Civilians in Time of War30, 40, 351, 455
Convention Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War629–30, 630n.41, 656–57n.11
Convention respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its annex30
definitions/types of violence376–77
Law of Occupation455
Relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts29n.3

genocide4 See also genocide, archetypes and alternatives; See also Genocide Convention; See also genocide/politicide (geno/politicide)
Armenian Genocide31
in Biafra100
in Burundi100
conceptual disruptors27, 43–44, 45
corporate involvement394, 401, 403t
definitions4, 41, 42–43, 98–99, 104, 130–31, 627–28
democide vs.42–43, 189
distinction from war crimes/crimes against humanity88–89
early warning (EW) systems of98
in East Timor100
economic and political factors197–201
genocides of conquest101
as group-centric vs. individual-centered atrocity38
in Guatemala879, 881, 884–86
historic development of31–34
human rights and129–33
international criminal law and627–29
labeling of intentional murder as97–98
legal definition189
legal vs. operational definitions104–5
Lemkin’s role in criminalization of31, 32
Malthusian formulations and164
military participation in427–28
military/policing agencies participation424
misuse of data on498
overlapping fields of study159–60
perpetrators escape from punishment97
post-colonial genocides100
post-coup and post-revolutionary genocides100–1
post-war-post-imperial genocides100
post-World War II identification of 46 genocides100
rank-and-file perpetrators83, 212, 213–14
rape as an act genocide41
role of NSAs in committing377
in Southern Sudan100
state involvement in423–24
structural and early warning (EW) models105–6
temporal progression of human rights violations131–33

genocide, archetypes and alternatives335–46
guilty perpetrator343–46
heroic combatant340–43
innocent victim/survivor337–40

Genocide Convention. See Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Genocide (1948) (United Nations)

genocide museums762

genocide/politicide (geno/politicide)
defined99
derivation of terminology189
early warning (EW) systems of103
post-World War II lives lost101
risk assessments101–3, 110

genocide/politicide (geno/politicide), typologies100–1
genocides of conquest101
inclusion of “utilitarian” mass killings174
national upheaval concept100
post-colonial genocides100
post-coup and post-revolutionary genocides100–1
post-war-post-imperial genocides100

Genovese, Kitty313–16, 313–14n.24

Georgia (country)356, 435, 526n.45, 870

German Reserve Police Battalion 101331–32

Germany. See also Holocaust; See also Nazis/Nazi Germany
attack on neutral Belgium30n.7
conviction of octogenarians/nonagenarians for Holocaust-era crimes76–77
emergence of ethno-nationalism107
International Military Tribunals focus on35–36
Luxembourg Agreement with Israel729–30, 729n.16, 732
population pyramid (1960)494f

Gestapo (Secret State Police) (Nazi Germany)256, 260, 265, 269n.36, 396–97

Global South
amnesties and676
consequences of the failure to address colonialism’s legacy595
origination of transitional justice processes604–5
support for accountability/criminal trials676
use of imagery of children used in humanitarian emergencies364
use of truth commissions683
wars over territorial disputes514–15

Global Witness organization765

Gobodo-Madikizela, Pumla296

Goebbels, Joseph282, 283–84

Gore, Al98

Göring, Hermann283–84, 296

Göth, Amon85

government one-sided violence (Kreutz)190

Graeber, David474–75

Graziani, Rodolfo865

Great Britain29, 34, 540

Great Leap Forward, China244–45

Greek torture school289–90

Greenpeace (NGO)375

grievances
collective grievances142
environmental scarcity163–64
intergroup hatreds169
political grievances162, 169
urban grievances164

Groening, Oskar76–77

group boundaries across criminal categories38–39

Guatemala879–96
armed conflict (1960-1996)21
child soldiers in355–56
“cleansing operations” of police267–68
Commission on Historical Clarification (CEH) report883–85
data collection by truth and reconclilation commissions498
enforced disappearances from256–57, 267
exhumation of mass graves497–98
genocide879, 881, 884–86
genocide trials, reactions/counterreactions887–93
granting of amnesties272, 686–87
Guatemala Never Again report884
Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity (URNG)perpetrators880
history of the conflict879–83
institutional reforms895
National Police of Guatemala257n.6, 262–63, 266
National Reconciation Law (NRL) amnesty law886
National Reparations Program893–94
police/security forces/military, as perpetrators256, 259
Recovery of Historical Memory (REHMI) project report884–85
recruitment of informers270
repressive regime in256
Rio Negro Massacres (1982)488
torture in880–81, 882, 886, 889, 893
transitional justice tribunals in596–97
truth and reconciliation commissions498
use of child soldiers355–56

Guatemalan Civil War214

guilty perpetrator archetype343–46

Guiora, A. N.305–6, 307n.10, 320–21

Gulf Cartel (Mexican drug cartel)375–76

Guterres, António447–48

Habyarimana, Juvénal334

Hague Conventions (1899, 1907)5–6, 29, 30, 629–30, 728

Hanning, Reinhold76–77

hate speech
as a cover for self-serving violence213–14
role in disseminating atrocities209
as a warning sign/cause of atrocity211–12, 220

herd instinct107

Herero genocide, German South West Africa427–28, 430–31

heroic combatant archetype340–43

Higgins, Polly526

Himmler, Heinrich282, 283–84, 290–91

Hirondelle News Agency619–20

“Historical Roots of Our Ecological Crisis” (White)527

Hitler, Adolf282, 283–84, 289, 522–23, 728

Hoess, Rudolf287–88

Holocaust (Nazi Holocaust)
absence from being mentioned at the UN General Assembly129
Brandt’s apology/commemoration of the murder of Jews586–87
corporate involvement399n.11, 399n.13, 403–4, 411–14
data on number of murders of Jews481
Eichmann’s role in rounding up/deportation of Jews425–26, 543n.31
as the epitome of atrocity crimes256–57
Genocide Convention and37–38, 43
German Reserve Police Battalion 101 round up/execution of Jews282–83, 331–32
Germany’s conviction of octogenarians/nonagenarians for Holocaust-era crimes76–77
ghettoization/deportations/extermination of peoples by Nazis33
“inmate” collaboration in Nazi concentration camps81–82
making Jews complicit in deportation/murder of other Jews339, 469
mass internments/killings of Jews in occupied Poland263–64, 267–68
Nuremberg Trials prosecution of perpetrators256
qualitative studies of second-generation survivors68
rape of Jewish women767
Schindler’s help in rescuing Jews308
Sophie’s choice paradigm468–69
transferring of Jewish property into “Aryan” hands411–12
as trigger for scholarly interest in atrocity crimes282
“true believers” in214
use of ghettoes and camps430–31

HRC, Human Rights Council

Humanitarian Early Warning System (HEWS)110

humanitarian intervention doctrine146–47, 442, 448–49

Human Rights Council (UN)118–19

human rights / human rights law115–36
during armed conflicts128
crackdowns by authoritarian regimes187
crimes against humanity and133–34
definitional variations on violations188n.3, 189–91
documented violations in Syria57
enactment into domestic law115
ethnic cleansing6
forced migration and535
genocide and129–33
human rights movement19, 602, 603, 765–66
influence on international humanitarian law124
International Court of Justice protections127
misuse of data on abuses498
need for more direct engagmement with international criminal justice135
as prevention119–20
recognition of civilian-targeted abuses32–33
repression and189
restrictions with derogations126
restrictions with no derogations126–27
temporal progression of genocide violations131–33
terminology used to denote violations189–91
top-down violations of84
violations against the Rohingya of Myanmar121n.24
violations within state borders195n.22
war crimes and124–28

Human Rights Watch2n.2, 69–70, 620n.7, 814

human trafficking78, 130

Hundred Years War29

Hungary, emergence of ethno-nationalism107

Hussein, Saddam36–37, 84

ICC. See International Criminal Court

ICCPR. See International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights

ICESCR. See International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights

ICRC. See International Committee of the Red Cross

ICTR. See International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda

ICTY. See International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia

ideologies, identities, and speech209–26 See also hate speech
commonplace moral aims and claims222
control of natural resources213–14
disagreements over the roles of220
jihadist groups (radical groups)213, 384–86
local rivalries, animosities, community interests213
moral disengagement of perpetrators (ideology)221
most meaningful forms220–23
motivation role of221–22
qualitative studies and findings216–18
quantitative analyses and findings216, 217
radicalization toward atrocity crimes223–25
rank-and-file perpetrators83, 212, 213–14
reasons for the powerfulness of218–19
revisionist perspective216–20
skeptical perspectives213–16, 218
strategic material motives214
terminology profusion related to220–21
traditionalists’ perspective212, 221
true believers214
types of extreme speech209

ideology (ideologies). See also authoritarianism/authoritarian regimes; See also dictatorships (dictatorial regimes); See also totalitarianism/totalitarian regimes
activist vs. opportunistic groups172–73
deceit by marketers of ideologies107
destructive, of dictatorial regimes198, 202–3
divisions created by superpowers103–4
ethnic eliminationism motive of actors89
exclusionary ideologies106–7, 197, 202–3
extremist ideologies and human rights119
fascism/Soviet-style Marxism104–5
groups that benefit ideologically from atrocities83
ideological purity niche78
intergroup hatreds and169, 212
motivations for legitimating frameworks for violence119, 218
nationalist ideology100
natural resources and167–69, 174
New Barbarism161–63
private vs. public motives for wrongdoing89

IHL. See international humanitarian law

India
enforced disappearances261
group-making through violence/fear of violence149–50
intercommunal violence in214
use of child solders356

indigenous groups (populations)
attacks by Zetas in Mexico380–81
Brazil/anti-indigenous violence174
in Canada709, 760
Colombia displaced data515
Fijian community712–14
genocide in Guatemala21, 259
impact of environmental devastation on519, 520–21
Quintin Lame Armed Movement (MAQL) (Colombia)806
South Africa/California, settler violence against237–38
UN transitional justice report on regard for706–7

indirect questioning methods55, 55n.3

indirect violence141, 235
defined235, 258–59
portrayals of141

individuals as bystanders303–24
atrocity triangle and12, 304–6, 305f, 307, 311–12
bystander effect313–15
career bystander310n.17
defining the role of304–7
distant bystander309–11
distinguished helpers309–11
duty to rescue doctrine and322–23, 322n.41
emotionally-related bystander309–11
enlightened bystander310–11n.18
explanation of319–20
forced silence and316n.28
ideologically-oriented bystander309–11
imposed bystander309–11
institutionally-rational-bystanders309–11
moral/legal responsibilities of320–23
opportunist bystander309–11
other hating bystander310n.17
personality characteristics311–13
professional bystander309–11
street-bystanders309–11
transitional justice and323
types of bystanders309–11

individuals as perpetrators281–96
core debates292–93
current state of research288–92
historical overview282–83
inter-/multidisciplinary area of research283–88
questions/conditions for future research293–95
research on perpetrators of international crimes295

Indonesia
campaign for the release of prisoners273–74
civil society’s push for redress845–46
Communist Group831, 834, 835
data on political detention camps829
democratic transition/decline of democracy829–30
documentary evidence of military actions257n.6
enforced disappearances844
enslavement/forced labor840–41
exterminations/systematic killings of prisoners839
forced deportations to internment camps841
imprisonment841–42
killings as crimes against humanity829–47
Komas Nasional Hak Asasi Manusia830–32, 836–37, 838–39, 840, 841, 843–44, 845, 846–47
mass killings, 1965243n.8
mass murder of unarmed civilians829
murders during detentions838
murders during interrogations838
National Human Rights Commission (Komas HAM)830–32, 836–37, 838–39, 840, 841, 843–44, 845, 846–47
national network of death squads835n.18
Northern Maluku Province intercommuncal atrocities217–18
perpetrators and victims834–35
persecution843–44
post-Cold War violence214
public killings/“spectacular violence,”838–39
reformasi period829–30
sexual violence843
targeted groups835
torture in260–61, 264, 831, 836–37, 838, 841–43, 846
truth commission (2004)693
use of child solders356
use of death lists840

Indonesian Communist Party (PKI, Partai Komunis Indonesia)829, 832–34, 835, 838, 840, 841, 843–44

Indonesian National Commission for Human Rights report20

Indonesia-Timor-Leste Commission on Truth and Friendship (CTF)690–91

innocent victim/survivor archetype337–40

Institute of War and Peace Reporting619–20

Inter-American Convention to Prevent and Punish Torture (1987)271–72

Inter-American Court of Human Rights, opposition to amnesties594n.36, 681–82

Inter-faith Commission for Peace and Justice814

intergenerational transmission of trauma and violence555–71
attachment research and theory560, 560n.9
biological mechanisms of trauma transmission562–63
broadening of orientations, perspectives563–64
children of Holocaust survivors558, 562–63
“chosen amnesia,”561–62, 562n.13
“chosen trauma,”568–69
combat trauma557
conceptual/methodological challenges556, 556n.3
conflict trap569–71
conspiracy of silence561–62
defining the problem558–60
description555–56
enforced silence562n.12
familial mechanisms560–62, 566–67
genocide and war-affected contexts557–58
growth of research on11, 52–53
historical background557
“historical trauma” of American Indian and Alaska Native (AIAN) communities562, 567–68
impact on social relationships and society557–58
inconclusiveness of evidence on68
mass atrocity violence and group identity567–69
from mass violence to “cycle of violence,”564–65
mechanisms of cultural transmission566–67
mechanisms of transmission560–63
new developments563–69
posts-traumatic stress disorder558–59, 559n.6, 561
psychic trauma557–58, 569
“secondary traumatization”/“vicarious traumatization558–59
study of Vietnam War veteran’s families557, 561

internally displaced persons (IDPs)
in Angola776, 781, 790, 793
camp lists58
sexual violence against62
specific protections for536–37, 547–49, 550
in Syria810–11

internal triangulation, in interviewing perpetrators61

international armed conflict
Article 8, Rome Statute and28
Bosnia/Herzegovina and38
corporate involvement data403t
crimes against humanity and28n.2
Yugoslav/Rwandan tribunals and35, 37n.17

International Commission of Jurists273–74

International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (ICISS)442

International Commission on Missing Persons (ICMP)497–98

International Committee of the Red Cross455
collection of information from persons who’ve lost contact with famiy members496–97
view on amnesties680

international community441–55 See also Responsiblity to Protect (R2P) doctrine
awareness of Apartheid regime of South Africa395–96
bystander innocence and78
development of instruments to address atrocity crimes271–72, 273–74
early warning challenges271
efforts against atrocious organizations273–74
expectations in holding perpetrators responsible2–3
failure to prevent the Rwandan genocide98, 103
failure to prevent the Ugandan genocide100–1
indeterminacy on issues450
need for greater effort on behalf of girls360
prosecution of extraordinary international crimes91
responsibilities of non-state armed groups452–55

International Convention on the Crime of Ecocide524

International Court of Justice (ICJ)
protections of human rights127
ruling on applicability of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights128
ruling on the concept of deprivation of life in wartime127–28

International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR)129, 584, 602
protection of cultural rights123
right to a fair trial123
right to life120, 122
treaty rights of117–18

International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights (ICESCR)
origin of129
treaty rights of117–18

International Crime Victim Survey (ICVS)54n.1

International Criminal Court (ICC)4 See also Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court
Appeals Chamber628n.35
convictions for war crimes88–89
crimes against humanity, defined342n.17
establishment of393
failures of the U.S./China/Russia in joining595
interactions with amnesties682
jurisdiction over crimes of aggression6
Office of the Prosecutor424–25, 659
Ongwen’s trial for war crimes, crimes against humanity332
prosecutorial limitations36
pursuit of charges against Ngaïssona and Yekatom546
statement on ecocide512

international criminal justice (ICJ)617–39 See also international criminal law
absence of state accountability133–34
bystander accountability/responsibility and321–23
emphasis on the place of victims596
evolution/transformation of mass atrocity prosecutions618–25
focus on individual actors436
need for more direct engagement with human rights135
performance assessments623
use of discipline-specific skills on issues623–24
use of tribunals and courts396–97
vagaries of the system of621–22
varied legal framework of crimes124–25
vulnerability of617–18

international criminal law (ICL)
acknowledgment of the role of business actors416
atrocity selectivity632–33
bystander responsibility and359–60
case selectivity633–35
core prohibitions/punishments423–24
the “criminal” in627–29
developmental drivers of424–25
diversification of scholarship and methodology623
duty to rescue doctrine and322n.41
enactment into domestic law115
evidentiary impediments635–37
evolution/transformation of mass atrocity prosecutions618–25
explosion of related scholarship619–20
failures of91
focus on accountability for atrocity crimes6
gaps in ability to take action126–27, 321–22
genocide and627–29
international humanitarian law (IHL) codified branch of629–31
the “international” in620
investigation/prosecution of human rights abuses124–25
limitations relating to protecting the environment523–24
operation in isolation10
predicate of individual agency, action, authorship76–77
prohibition of sexual violence123–24
prosecution of those deemed most responsible (TMR) for violence424–25
role in accountability115–16
role in collective crisis and recovery79
selectivity631–32
successes, setbacks, challenges625–37
vulnerability of618
war crimes branch of629–31

International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR)4, 36–37
addressing of evidence of sexual violence649
Akayesu case38–39, 38n.20, 41
Best Practices document661
covering by the Hirondelle News Agency619–20
criminalization of rape as atrocity crime40
empowerments of37n.17
establishment of282, 481–82
historical background626n.31
as part of a system of accountability766–67

International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY)4, 36–37
addresing of evidence of sexual violence649
Appeals Chamber on the goal of genocidaires132–33
conviction of Erdemović and Tadić82–83
covering by the Hirondelle News Agency619–20
criminalization of rape as atrocity crime40
Dordevic case662
empowerments of37n.17
establishment of282, 481–82
Furundžija case662
investigation of data collected by64
Jelisić case39
Krstić case39
Kunarac Appeals judgment656–57
Mucić et al. case38, 600–1n.53
as part of a system of accountability766–67
population project, Office of the Prosecutor500–5
Red Cross collection of information on missing persons496–97
Tadic Appeals judgment657
United Nations Security Council establishment of625

International Crisis Group110, 765

international humanitarian law (IHL)
categories28, 423–24
defined28, 115
developmental drivers of424–25
ECtHR examination of relevant cases124–25
influence of “human rights thinking” on124
outlawing of war crimes124
prohibition on attacking cultural property123
prosecution of those deemed most responsible (TMR) for violence424–25
rape as “grave breach” of40
regulation of war crimes5–6, 28, 124
on treatment of prisoners of war (POWs)123

International Justice Monitor619n.6

International Labour Organization273–74

International Law Commission (ILC)133–34, 525, 629n.36

International Military Tribunals, Nuremberg and Tokyo35–36, 37, 431

International Red Cross29–30

International Refugee Organization’s (IRO) Constitution540–41

International Self-Report on Delinquency (ISRD)survey54n.2

intrastate violent conflicts. See non-international armed conflict

Iraq36–37 See also Iraq, Êzidîs (Yazidis) genocide
al-Qaeda violence in373
Ba’ath Party375
Blackwater Security Consulting killing of civilians373
deaths of Kurds in103–4
delay in U.S. intervention in36–37
enforced disappearances261
exhortation of violence by conflict entrepeneurs84
genocide against the Êzidîs899–919
group-making through violence/fear of violence149–50
Shia vs. Sunni violence152
transitional processes in597
use of child soldiers354–55, 356

Iraq, Êzidîs (Yazidis) genocide21–22, 899–919
background/beliefs of Êzidî religious group900–1, 902
background of the perpetrators912–13
child survivors challenges and struggles914–15
complex post-traumatic stress disorder (CPTSD) of victims914
consequences for the Êzidî victims913–15
data on number of murders, kidnappings907
enslavement/forced marrigae of girls over eight years of age906–7
forced conscription of Êzidî boys and men905
genocidal acts by ISIS908–10
genocidal intent910–12
intercommunal relations of the Êzidîs902
ISIS attack on Sinjār, home of the Êzidîs899–900, 903–4
ISIS capture/massacre of Êzidîs903–5
kidnapped boys as child soldiers915
material destruction of Êzidî environment and cultural heritage907
persecution of Êzidîsm901–2
prospects of justice916–18
reaction to/aftermath of915–18
sexual slavery of girls and women906, 914
vulnerabilities of the Êzidîs902

Iraq Body Count project57

Irish Republican Army (IRA)14, 375, 377–79, 383, 386 See also Northern Ireland conflict
bombing campaigns378
comparison to Lord’s Resistance Army383
emergence of377–78
murders committed by378
political success achieved through violence386
violence strategies of379

ISIS. See Islamic State of Iraq and Syria

Islam
fundamentalist Islam107

Islamic State of Iraq and Syria384–86 See also Iraq, Êzidîs (Yazidis) genocide
efforts at appearing as savior of Sunni Muslims145
emergence of384
genocide against the Yezidi people385, 452
mass massacres committed by384
pursuit of destruction of abstract identities384–85
sexual violence652
violent alliances of151–52

Ismailis, Shia group107

Israel
Arab-Israeli War570
demands for reparation payments from Germany729
Eichmann’s trial331
Holocaust survivor’s relocation557, 562
Kapo collaborator trials81–82
Luxembourg Agreement with Federal Republic of Germany729–30, 729n.16, 732
Nazi and Nazi Collaborators Act81–82
opposition to ICC’s investigations633n.51
recruitment of child soldiers356
Reparations Agreement between Israel and West Germany729
settlement/rehabilitation of Jewish refugees in Israel730

Israeli Wall Advisory Opinion128

Israel Nazi and Nazi Collaborators Act81–82

Italy
colonial sphere of influence in the Horn of Africa858–59
crimes against humanity in Ethiopia858–59
emergence of ethno-nationalism107
Mussolini’s influence on World War II192
prosecution of Graziani for collaboration with Germans865

Jacobins’ (Robespierre’s) reign of terror100–1

Jalisco (Mexican drug cartel)379

Jama’at al- Tawhid wal- Jihad902–3n.10

Janjaweed militia fighters245, 425, 429, 443–44

Japan
atrocities of30
biological experimentation on civilians30
comfort women redress and reparation movement745–46
convictions for “crimes against peace,”35–36
forced prostitution during World War II652
International Military Tribunals, Tokyo2n.3, 35–36, 37, 617, 649, 864
kidnapping/enslavement of women745n.77
refusal to engage with victims727n.9
rehoming of from WRA camps737–38, 738n.48
sexual violence by officers649
slaughters of Chinese prisoners of war427–28
U.S. internment of Japanese Americans during World War II733

Jelisić, Goran39

Jewish people. See also Holocaust; See also Lauterpacht, Hersch; See also Lemkin, Raphael; See also Levi, Primo
analysis of survival chances in the Netherlands62–63
Bessarabia/Transnistria, violence against219–20
Brandt’s apology/commemoration of the murder of Jews586–87
collaboration in Nazi concentration camps81–82
flight from the pogroms or Russia, Eastern Europe539
local religious minorities help during World War II239
mass internments/killings in occupied Poland263–64, 267–68
Nazi radicalization of policies against Jews214
Nazis’ negative bias against/branding of Jews104–5, 212
post-Holocaust settlement/rehabilitation of refugees in Israel730

jihadist groups (radical groups)213, 384–86

jus ad bellum (regulations on proper justifications for war)28, 88–89

jus cogens norms81, 681

jus in bello (international humanitarian law)28, 29–30, 88–89

justice cascade19, 393
consolidation of accountability norms394, 395–96, 416
description393–94, 766–67
in Latin America272, 395–96
post-atrocity memorials and19