A systematic literature review to explore sustainable energy development practices in Mozambique

Abstract

This study thoroughly evaluates sustainable energy practices in Mozambique, identifies suitable activities and suggests future research directions. The authors meticulously detail the research tasks undertaken to achieve the primary objective of the study, including organizing articles by publication year, journal and conference papers; identifying the most frequently cited articles; and recognizing countries that have made significant contributions to the concept of sustainable energy. The study highlights the most relevant sustainable energy development practices for Mozambique, identifies suitable activities and suggests future research directions. Through rigorous analysis, six significant areas of sustainable energy development were identified, including renewable energy (RE) resources, environmental science, social sciences, computer science, management and accounting, and Earth and planetary sciences. The study used Scopus as the selected multidisciplinary peer-reviewed citation database on 20 February 2023, resulting in 76 publications. The study has been conducted nationwide for several months and thoroughly investigates various resources such as hydro, wind, solar, biomass and geothermal energy. It achieves this by evaluating and characterizing the power generation potential of each RE resource and, in addition, identifying and examining numerous projects at the technical and economic feasibility level to promote the potential of projects and the advantages of RE for the sustainable development of Mozambique. The findings indicate that for sustainable energy development in Mozambique, it is crucial to introduce more policies to support the effectiveness of RE systems while involving the private sector. To achieve this, measures such as reducing investment risks, guaranteeing investment returns and establishing a transparent regulatory framework are required. These steps will attract substantial investments, resolve conflicts and motivate key stakeholders to actively participate in the process.

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Introduction

Sustainable development is the preferred way to accomplish development goals, as evidenced by the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). According to Malley [1], sustainable development allows diverse economies to grow while using resources that do not affect the environment. As a development paradigm, it highlights numerous techniques that incorporate environmental concerns while including economic and social ideals to secure adequate resources for future generations to grow [2]. As a result, for Mozambique to embark on a new growth path, sustainable development practices must remain a top state priority in policy-making endeavours. According to Zhang and Zhu [3], countries hoped to work consistently towards sustainable development and play an active role in its global realization. The advancement of more nations towards sustainable development is essential to enhance the probability of its attainment worldwide [4]. Studies have highlighted the relevance of energy in sustainable development because energy is required to provide various essential services [5]. It is an important source of revenue in any country. Bacon [6] stated that energy could be the primary source of government revenue in the nations that generate it. Akrofi et al. [7] said that the energy industry is a recognized vital sector that helps to achieve the SDGs. Energy resources have always been essential for economic growth, social development, scientific advancement and national security [4, 8–10].

However, recently, the global energy sector has undergone significant changes. It is important to note that energy demand continues to grow while the supply is limited. This contradiction has brought attention to the challenge of achieving the SDGs, particularly in terms of energy sustainability [11–13]. From 2010, Lior [14] attempted to explore various routes to more prudent utilization of energy resources, often called conservation. The authors suggested that this involves reducing unnecessary waste, improving energy conversion efficiency, substituting for products and processes with lower energy intensity, recycling and adopting more energy-efficient lifestyles. Jefferson [15] observed that renewable energy (RE) has already begun to represent a smaller proportion of the total primary energy supply in several industrialized nations and an even smaller share of electricity generation in many others. Iddrisu and Bhattacharyya [16] argued that energy is a crucial component of modern life in any nation and assessing the sustainability of a country’s energy system is a vital policy challenge. They also analysed the adequacy of current metrics for monitoring energy sustainability and concluded that the available multidimensional indicators do not adequately capture the sustainability aspect. Scholars have exhaustively examined diverse points of view on the construction and assessment of indicators for sustainable energy development (SED). Some have selected indicators of economic, social, environmental and institutional dimensions to design a comprehensive evaluation system for SED [17–19]. Emodi and Boo [20] stated that SED is concerned with preserving energy resources to enhance economic growth in the short, medium and long term. Many scholars chose indicators from various aspects, such as energy supply, energy services, energy consumption and energy security, to create a comprehensive set of evaluation criteria for SED [21–24]. Gunnarsdottir et al. [25] suggested that the energy indicators for sustainable development could be considered a starting set of indicators that require further refinement in the context in which they are used to ensure their relevance and usefulness. Several researchers have conducted independent studies focusing on assessing the level of energy sustainability in various nations. Sarkodie [26] extensively conducted a comprehensive assessment of energy sustainability in 217 countries utilizing the SDG framework. Despite the vast amount of research on this topic, it is essential to acknowledge the limitations of the current literature on SED. Many studies only examine macro-level assessments of individual countries, overlooking the significance of evaluating SED at the provincial level.

Furthermore, SED is impacted by multiple factors, such as natural resources, technology, finance and the environment. Among these factors, natural resources are especially crucial in providing solid material support for SED. Access to abundant natural resources provides local energy industries with direct raw materials and production resources, reducing production and operation costs, and ultimately supporting SED.

This article describes SED and emphasizes critical actions related to this concept. A more systematic literature review (SLR), to the best of the authors’ understanding, addresses, to the best of the authors’ knowledge, a more extensive literature review of this topic in developing nations. In this context, the authors paid special attention to discussing various aspects of sustainability in Mozambique. The following part briefly discusses the methodology, explains the SLR, states the quantitative and qualitative (research findings) and provides a commentary in which the contribution of the article to economic literature is described and the shortcomings of the research are noted. Our article on SED is unique in that it provides a complete examination of the social, economic and environmental elements of sustainable energy, as well as an emphasis on practical implementation tactics. Although other articles have addressed the issue of sustainable development, our research is distinguished by taking a comprehensive approach that incorporates multiple aspects of sustainability and highlights practical solutions for energy development.

1 Methodology

The present study used a systematic review of the literature to add the best available evidence from various databases to its results. According to Xiao and Watson [27], it is feasible to build new theories by summarizing and synthesizing a set of linked literature, testing a specific hypothesis and assessing the validity and quality of past works to detect errors, inconsistencies and discrepancies [28].

The research method used in this work was encouraged by Reis et al. [29], among others, and included the following stages: (i) define the research question; (ii) design an approach; (iii) literature search; (iv) use exclusion and inclusion measures; (v) conduct quantitative and qualitative studies; and lastly (vi) discuss findings and recommendations.

The current study involves an up-to-date literature review of publications indexed on Scopus. Furthermore, the research indicates that effective measures can be implemented at the community and non-governmental organization levels to enhance SED practices in Mozambique. The current study adds to the environmental and social literature by analysing possible SED practices and future research prospects.

An SLR procedure was based on research questions defining the subject, object and scope of Scopus. Accordingly, the following research questions were posed:

RQ1: What are the potential SED research areas in Mozambique?

RQ2: What are the benefits of SED in Mozambique?

RQ3: What are the contributions of SED in Mozambique?

RQ4: How does sustainable energy contribute to the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and improve living conditions in Mozambique?

1.1 Quantitative approach

Scopus was selected as the peer-reviewed database for data collection on 20 February 2023. This database was the primary source of information used to ensure scientific quality and diversity. The authors utilized inclusion criteria by including ‘(Sustainable Development AND Energy AND Mozambique)’ in the subject TITLE-ABS-KEY. The authors selected the subject category before the ‘Document’ category to narrow the search results to articles that addressed SED rather than broader aspects of sustainable development. To minimize confusion, the chosen language during the limitation was ‘English’. This method resulted in 68 publications (journal papers) and 8 conference papers. Based on evaluating these articles, the authors tried to address the research questions (RQ1, RQ2, RQ3 and RQ3), as shown in Table 1.

The Scopus database initially contained publications on SED in Mozambique from 1999. Aswathanarayana [30] proposed functions and organizational structure for the Natural Resources Management Facility in Mozambique aiming to eliminate poverty and create jobs by managing natural resources in an environmentally sustainable, commercially successful and people-participatory way (water and soil resources, ecotourism, mineral resources, coastal and marine resources, energy resources and other resources).

Accordingly, Di Lucia [31] proposed that the sustainable development paradigm should advance the critical purpose of environmental and development policies. In 2010, two journal papers and one conference paper were published by Merven et al. [32], Beilfuss and Brown [33] and Beilfuss [34]. Until 2017, relatively fewer articles have been published on the SED topic. However, in 2017, Broto [35] published a paper entitled ‘Energy landscapes and urban trajectories towards sustainability’. This paper deepened discussions on SED in Mozambique, resulting in many publications in 2019. Since 2017, the number of publications in the Scopus database has increased, reaching ten in 2019, during the analysis period of articles in scientific journals in comparison with conference papers. Fig. 1 illustrates that in a 24-year period, more journal articles than conference papers were published regularly.

Table 2 shows the most-referenced publications in the Scopus database. The article most frequently referenced (75 times) was a paper by Batidzirai et al. [36] entitled ‘Biomass and bioenergy supply from Mozambique’, which was published in the journal Energy for Sustainable Development in 2006. The authors of this study proposed six Mozambican districts as viable biomass production sites, as well as the energy cost and use of delivering pellets, pyrolysis oil and Fischer–Tropsch (FT) fuels to the worldwide market.

The second-most-cited journal paper is entitled ‘Energy landscapes and urban trajectories towards sustainability’, published by Broto [35]. This research looks at three case studies of urbanized energy landscapes in India (Bengaluru), the People’s Republic of China (Hong Kong) and Mozambique (Maputo). The instances suggest varied patterns (uniform, fractured, dispersed) for how fuels and electricity are given and accessed. Baumert et al. [37] co-authored the third-most-cited article, which is available in the journal Energy for Sustainable Development. The article entitle ‘Charcoal supply chains from Mabalane to Maputo: who benefits?’ was cited 50 times.

When considering the criterion study concerning SED by countries, Fig. 2 shows the assumed publications. Mozambique is the leading country and the research centre in this field is the Universidade Eduardo Mondlane. The UK comes second with 16 journals. The University of York, Durham University, the University of Oxford, the University College London, the University of Northumbria and the University of Edinburgh are the primary research institutions working with SED concerns. South Africa, the USA, Italy, Sweden, Portugal, Netherlands, Brazil and Germany are among them. South Africa received 13 publications for their efforts. The premier research institutions of that country are the University of the Witwatersrand in Johannesburg, the University of Cape Town and the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research. More than 11 articles on this issue have been published in Netherlands, with Wageningen University & Research and Universiteit Utrecht leading the way. Portugal also has more than 11 publications, with Instituto Superior Tecnico ranking first. Sweden came in sixth position, with around nine publications. Lunds Universiteit is the principal research institution. Italy received more than seven, with Politecnico di Milano, F.E.I. The University, Universidad de Córdoba and Università degli Studi di Modena e Reggio Emilia leading the way. The International Crane Foundation and the University of Wisconsin-Madison were the principal publishers in the USA. Other nations, such as Germany and Brazil, fell short of the five-publication threshold.

The topics chosen for the Scopus database analysis were multidisciplinary, diverse and multithreaded. Fig. 3 depicts seven research domains: ‘Energy’, ‘Engineering’, ‘Agricultural & Biological Sciences’, ‘Earth Sciences’, ‘Social Sciences’, ‘Environmental Sciences’ and Economics and Finance’. In certain situations, a single paper represents many study fields; hence, the total number of publications differs from 80. The report by Adeleye et al. [42] is an example given to domains such as ‘Energy’, ‘Environmental Science’ and ‘Engineering’, accounting for almost 24.6% connected to ‘Energy’. The publications examined account for 73.7% of the total volume of publications (76). There are a low quantity and percentage of publications on the subjects of ‘Biochemistry, Genetics, and Molecular Biology’ [43, 44]: two documents; ‘Chemical Engineering’ [45, 46]: two papers; ‘Decision Sciences’ [47, 48]: two articles; ‘Physics And Astronomy’ [49, 50]: two documents; and ‘Material Science’ [51]: one paper, as illustrated in Fig. 3, which were classified as ‘Others’.

2 RE development in Mozambique

2.1 Capacity mechanism

Mozambique has the most significant power generation potential compared with other nations in Southern Africa [52], containing abundant unexploited coal, hydro, gas, wind and solar resources, and energy from agricultural biogas, biomass, bioliquids and biogas. According to the Lusophone Renewable Energy Association [53], hydropower accounts for ~78% of installed capacity [54, 55]. However, exploration for new RE sources is still in its early stages on a large scale. Currently, the capacity of RE on the grid is only 41 MW.

Studies such as those by Cuamba et al. [56], Ameen and Lalk [57] and Kirshner et al. [58] emphasize the use of solar photovoltaics (PV) and wind energy. A substantial body of literature on biomass use includes work by Batidzirai et al. [36], Schut and Florin [59], Merven et al. [32] and Al-Najjar et al. [60]. Researchers Di Lucia [31] and Van der Hilst and Faaij [43] discussed the use of biofuel. Lastly, an exciting method for the use of RE sources using hydropower was mentioned by Uamusse et al. [61] and Uamusse et al. [44].

It is commonly recognized that nations with low electrification rates have lower gross domestic product per capita and are less developed [62, 63]. Despite extraordinary attempts by the Government of Mozambique to conduct extensive electrification in recent years, more than half of the population depends on numerous traditional types of biomass to fulfil basic energy demands, such as firewood, charcoal or dung [64]. Therefore, population growth is a crucial driver of energy consumption [65]. However, with 13 major river basins at the national scale, Mozambique has substantial water resources and hydropower potential becoming the main grid extension of the country. Therefore, there is still a considerable need to diversify Mozambique’s energy mix by integrating new sources. However, including power provided by national networks will remain crucial in providing energy access solutions. Technological improvements in sustainable energy, particularly solar energy, can significantly increase the options to expand access to individuals in rural regions not served by grid expansion [66] in the coming years.

2.2 Solar energy

Mozambique experiences significant and steady solar radiation across its entire landmass [67], especially in regions such as Tete, Niassa, Nampula and Cabo Delgado, with a global potential of 23 000 GW. Among these, ~600 MW of projects are considered feasible for connection to the grid.

2.3 Wind energy

After surveying wind resources for a year, it was predictable that there are 16 places in the central and southern areas of Mozambique with a total wind potential of 4.5 GW [53]. Nearly 1.1 GW of these projects are deemed feasible for grid connection and are expected to produce energy for 2300–3900 hours annually. There is a focus on several locations in the southern region near significant consumer centres.

2.4 Biomass

Mozambique has a range of resources to generate electricity from biomass and municipal solid waste (MSW). Forest biomass is a significant source, with a theoretical capacity of 1 GW, particularly in the provinces of Zambezia, Niassa and Manica [68]. Furthermore, sugar mills have the potential for generating 0.8 GW. In contrast, MSW incineration projects could generate ≤63 MW. In particular, forest concessions in Lichinga, damaged palm trees and rice companies in Quelimane, four existing sugar mills and a new landfill in Maputo/Matola all provide substantial short-term potential, with a total capacity of 128 MW [64].

2.5 Hydropower

Hydroelectric power is Mozambique’s most commercially attractive renewable resource, notably the Zambezi River system and other medium-sized projects scattered throughout the nation. More than 1400 projects have been investigated, totalling 18.6 GW of potential hydropower. Three hundred and fifty-one, or 5.6 GW, of these projects have been assessed to be technically and economically viable [67, 69].

2.6 Geothermal resource

Mozambique has three prospective geothermal power generation sites related to existing thermal springs in the Tete, Zambezia and Niassa provinces [53]. The cumulative potential of these locations is 147 MW, with temperatures ranging from 140°C to 160°C at depths ranging from 1500 to 2500 metres. Notable is Metangula in the Niassa province, which has a steeper gradient and a higher demand for thermal generation, highlighting the need for additional research.

3 Research findings

The component of this research will show the quantitative results. The authors mapped the distribution of literature on the topics by year and selected the most-referenced pieces. The authors then identified the nations (and the relevant research centres) with the most substantial contribution practices to the SED publishing activity. Finally, each similar article was examined with the relevant regions. The result is the first research question:

3.1 RQ1: What are the potential SED research areas in Mozambique?

Mozambique has ~23 TW of RE potential and dozens of prospective projects ranging from small-scale rural electrification initiatives to large hydroelectric dams on the Zambezi River. Around 7 GW, or >500 projects, mainly involving hydropower, wind, solar, biomass and geothermal, could serve as alternative solutions for Mozambique’s electricity system and be integrated into future network expansion plans [53]. According to the Lusophone Renewable Energy Association [53], in addition to these projects, current technological advances enable the use of RE in microscale projects ranging from 5 to 100 kW, which are ideal for rural electrification. In ~300 identified sites, for example, solar panels, batteries and generators or Pico hydro systems can be a cost-effective electrification solution when the electric grid is remote. Other electrification methods based on individual solar units may also be possible, delivering lower service levels but still providing a functional electrification alternative with minimum expenditure.

RQ2: What are the benefits of SED in Mozambique?

The authors will detail the specific advantages and actions to achieve SED and pinpoint the essential methods used in Mozambique. As a result, this section will provide an answer to the second research enquiry.

3.1 The benefits of SED in Mozambique

The adoption of RE can provide numerous benefits for Mozambique. Hydropower projects may serve several uses while providing a low-cost energy generation option. Furthermore, Mozambique has innumerable options for small and medium-sized projects that can bring investment opportunities, improve grid optimization, improve power quality and create jobs while promoting regional development. Finally, RE is the most cost-effective way to electrify rural areas, whether through modest solar power plants with battery and generator backup or decentralized solar solutions and Pico hydro. On the basis of these considerations, RE should remain a top focus in Mozambique’s energy strategy.

Various authors, including Zebra et al. [70] and Matavel et al. [71], attempted to discuss the strategic directions for SED. Table 3 shows a sample of SED benefits. The practices established in Table 3 were the only ones presented. Despite their best efforts, several authors alluded to energy distribution in papers that had nothing to do with the objective of this systematic literature study. Furthermore, the SED technique might differ based on the environment at which the study is aimed.

RQ3: What are the contributions of SED in Mozambique?

The energy industry has remained crucial to the Mozambique economy since the exploitation of coal, natural gas and hydroelectric sources. For example, according to Mahumane and Mulder [75], hydro was expected to grow its primary energy output for export by at least 6-fold in 2015. However, increasing resource exports in developing nations such as Mozambique might help narrow energy inequalities between urban and rural regions while reacting to the problem of climate change and seeking alternative energy sources.

Mozambique’s use of RE could significantly influence the country’s total economic power. Müller-Steinhagen and Nitsch [76] emphasized the predicted rise in conventional energy costs, indicating that a robust strategy for promoting RE sources is required for long-term growth and fiscally responsible policies. Similarly, Posso et al. [77] researched and found that Mozambique can move towards a hydrogen economy using renewable sources such as manufacturing hydrogen from untapped hydropower and using it in Cuenca’s urban transportation.

3.1.1 Reduction of imports

Using RE sources for power generation can reduce dependence on imported fuels. Mozambique, which lacks local refining capability, relies on oil and gasoline imports and is a net importer of petroleum products. The country has excellent RE potential, particularly in hydropower, which could allow it to become a prominent RE supplier. According to Krane and Idel [78], RE systems do not require fuel and rely only on commerce to purchase materials and components during construction. Once the system is up and running, no trade is required to keep it running. Due to the low demand for transition materials, international trade volumes will decrease.

3.1.2 Energy cost reduction

According to Gielen et al. [79], large hydroelectric projects can dramatically lower the cost of power generation, making energy services more accessible to the people. They also claim that the use of RE for electrification can account for 41–54% of the overall cost savings, increasing energy efficiency and the amount of RE.

3.1.3 Lower emissions of greenhouse gases and environmental sustainability

Investing in RE implies less dependence on fossil fuels and lower pollution from coal and fuel oil combustion. Megía et al. [80] discovered that biomass-based technologies might ­manufacture hydrogen with similar yields as water-based technologies but with greater energy efficiency and lower operational costs. According to the study, combining these technologies might create green hydrogen while lowering carbon dioxide emissions, aiding in mitigating global climate change and transitioning to a hydrogen-based economy.

3.1.4 Greater diversification and supply security

Diverse options are crucial for power sources to reduce dependence and increase security. Gitelman et al. [81] found that diversification can take many forms, including implementing a systematic approach to managing the energy transition, introducing complex organizational and technical changes in the electricity industry, and implementing institutional mechanisms to support innovation. The authors also emphasized specific diversification directions, such as increasing the thermal power plant market share, including a generation capacity structure for RE sources to compensate for their higher production costs and developing advanced nuclear power plants.

3.1.5 Investment mobilization and job creation

According to research by Ram et al. [82], the transition to RE has the potential to create jobs at all phases of the energy production process, from planning through building, operation and maintenance. The authors underline the need to examine the impact of energy transitions on employment, particularly job losses in traditional energy industries, as this may guide global decision-making. According to their predictions, direct work in energy-related sectors such as electricity, heat, transportation and desalination would increase from 57 million in 2020 to roughly 134 million by 2050.

3.1.6 Hydro plants with multiple purposes

Dam reservoirs can provide water for human consumption, agriculture, irrigation, firefighting and tourism, among other things. Elkadeem et al. [83] investigated the viability of a grid-isolated hybrid RE system to energize agriculture and irrigation. Sudharshan et al. [84] investigated the possible advantages of RE in agriculture and irrigation.

3.1.7 Power-quality improvement

Encouraging energy generation closer to customers reduces transmission losses and the risks associated with managing and maintaining power systems, increasing power quality [85]. Singh et al. [86] described the grid interconnection of RE sources at the distribution level using features for improving power quality.

3.1.8 Stimulation and attraction of industrial activity

Energy availability and dependability are crucial for the creation of industries. Beer et al. [87] researched the link between RE sources and tourism, evaluating their potential to improve the appeal of the tourism business in a specific location. Based on the analysis, it is evident that the visitor centres located near geothermal power plants and wind parks garnered the highest number of visitors. This positive result is credited to their unique visual features.

4 Policy implications

Effective policies are instrumental in promoting the necessary actions towards sustainable development [88]. It is essential to analyse the interplay between energy consumption, emissions and economic development to ensure the success of RE policies [89]. This process requires a comprehensive evaluation of the various factors that facilitate or hinder the deployment of renewables [90–92]. Establishing energy efficiency and incorporating RE are crucial to achieving a sustainable energy system that aligns with environmental sustainability. Federal and state entities can do this by implementing suitable policies and programmes (Table 4).

Considering that the main goal of Mozambique’s national plans is to achieve universal access to electricity by 2030 [53], the primary policy framework that guides this initiative is the Integrated Electricity Sector Master Plan from the state-owned energy company (EDM). This strategy aims to increase installed capacity to 6001 MW by 2030 and integrate RE sources into the system at a rate of 20% [93].

5 Discussion

This portion of the research will summarize the contribution of this study to developing the SED for the MDGs in Mozambique. As a result, an answer to RQ4 will be presented.

RQ4: How does sustainable energy contribute to the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and improve living conditions in Mozambique?

SED offers access to essential energy services such as lighting and communication in physically remote areas. Rahut et al. [98] used data from the Living Standard Measurement Study in three African nations to analyse the factors that influence the use of renewable and clean energy sources for lighting in Africa. According to the authors, only a tiny minority of families use solid fuels or solar energy for illumination.

5.1 Environmental health improvement

In the atmosphere, greenhouse gases, including CO₂, H₂O vapour, CH₄, N₂O and O₃, can harm the environment by contributing to global warming, leading to climate change [99]. RE sources are crucial to reducing carbon dioxide emissions and improving environmental health while maintaining affordability. The effectiveness of RE in lowering carbon footprints cannot be denied and they significantly emit fewer greenhouse gases, positively contributing to the environment. Therefore, we must prioritize using RE sources for a sustainable future. Natural resources such as the Sun, rivers, oceans, air and geothermal energy are used to generate electrical and thermal energy through RE resources. Photovoltaic solar cells and concentrating solar-thermal cells are examples of technologies that obtain electrical power from light and thermal energy from the Sun. The amount of electrical energy produced depends on the scale of the technology and the system used to harness solar energy. Since the Sun is an abundant and sustainable energy source, the technology used to convert solar energy into electrical energy generates zero waste while having a shallow carbon footprint due to the absence of greenhouse gases.

5.2 Better education

The relationship between education and economic growth can be described by the notion that a country’s educational level adds to its enrichment and to people’s creative and transforming power. Khairi et al. [100] advocate installing photovoltaic solar energy in schools to offer illumination to improve student productivity. They investigated the viability of installing solar PV on the roofs of educational buildings with varying slopes. According to the study, even modest rooftop areas in certain buildings have high generation potential and can cover the energy needs of the institute. Furthermore, installing rooftop solar PV saves energy and electricity bills, making it advantageous for educational institutions.

5.3 Communication and access to information

Access to electricity to charge mobile phones, listen to the radio and watch television is vital to improving access to information and communication, which helps progress. In their study, Rehmani et al. [101] analysed the integration of RE resources into the smart grid system and the communication networks that support its utilization.

5.4 Productivity improvement

Using RE sources can boost community productivity through crop drying, grain milling and other similar activities. Adopting more intense production patterns, such as those seen in industry, agribusiness and agriculture, can increase income levels and job prospects, improving tax collection. Pamparana et al. [102] studied the integration of photovoltaic solar energy into the functioning of a semi-autogenous grinding mill in their research. Due to periods of pressured copper prices, high energy costs and climate change mitigation goals, the report also emphasized the necessity to seek alternative energy sources in mining. Another study conducted by Potoglou et al. [103] also performed research on the utilization of solar energy for production applications such as grain milling and drying, which could increase production in rural areas.

6 Limitations

Although this research conducted a comprehensive systematic review of the literature using quantitative and qualitative analysis, it has several limitations. The results had to rely on a rigorous study of the Scopus repository and other databases such as Google Scholar and Web of Science, which limited the number of publications available on the subject.

The search word TITLE-ABS-KEY (Sustainable Development AND Energy) was another constraint. Valuable publications, such as Mensah [104] and Ololade [105], address the issue of energy efficiency. The present study did not include publications that did not have the term ‘development’ in their title, abstract or keywords. In addition, the study was restricted to analysing ­completed journal articles and conference materials, while books, monograph chapters and reports were not considered. Another constraint was that only articles published in English were included and publications in other languages, including Portuguese, the official language of Mozambique [106], were omitted.

7 Future research guidelines

This part of the research will summarize the future research topics of the study and the development trend of technologies in SED. Based on the constraints stated, the authors suggest the following directions for future work:

• ● adding analyses of other database repositories such as Web of Science and Google Scholar;

• ● incorporating various types of publications such as reviews, monograph chapters, books and conference reports;

• ● analysing journals written in languages other than English, such as Chinese or Portuguese, must be considered for inclusion;

• ● using additional keywords, such as ‘Renewable Energy Sources’ and ‘Energy Efficiency’, generated during the SLR;

• ● recognizing the interdependence of political, legal, economic, social, technical and environmental variables on the country’s affordable energy availability;

• ● therefore, the authors recommend empirically validating the conceptual model for SED established by Pizarro-Loaiza et al. [107] and Ololade [105].

7.1 The development trend of technologies in Mozambique

The adoption of RE can provide numerous benefits for Mozambique. Hydropower projects may serve several uses while providing a low-cost energy generation option. Furthermore, Mozambique has innumerable options for small and medium-sized projects that can bring investment opportunities, improve grid optimization, improve power quality and create jobs while promoting regional development. Finally, RE is the most cost-effective way to electrify rural areas, whether through modest solar power plants with battery and generator backup or decentralized solar solutions and Pico hydro. On the basis of these considerations, RE should remain a top focus in Mozambique’s energy strategy.

8 Conclusions

From 1992 to 2023, the authors thoroughly evaluated the literature on SED. They examined the frequency and types of documents in the field, identified the most-cited articles, named the nations that contributed the most to developing the SED in Mozambique and defined the research fields under SED. The authors determined that a widely recognized method for SED must be established, including different aspects. The authors described SED as a concept that ensures affordable access to energy in an ecologically sustainable way that matches the goals of social and economic development. They advocated for the incorporation of more alternative and RE sources into the energy mix. The authors observed that several papers related to SED should have mentioned that term in the title, keywords or abstract. They recommended verifying the conceptual model to answer questions about the elements influencing SED and its impact on security and social welfare. The authors emphasized the importance and relevance of the SED idea, which requires additional investigation and examination in quantitative and qualitative studies. With technological improvements, RE may be used in micro-sized projects ranging from 5 to 100 kW suited for rural electrification. In addition to small, medium and big projects, these microscale projects can be accomplished using solar panels, batteries, generators or Pico hydro, which have been shown to be cost-effective alternatives for rural electrification, particularly in locations that are remote from the electric grid. Although they provide lower service levels, individual solar units can also be considered for rural electrification because they require less investment and are a realistic choice.

Funding

This research did not receive a specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial or non-profit sectors.

Conflict of interest statement

None declared.

Data Availability

The data underlying this article will be shared on reasonable request to the corresponding author.

References