Index

For the benefit of digital users, indexed terms that span two pages (e.g., 52–53) may, on occasion, appear on only one of those pages.

Figures are indicated by f following the page number

Abamelek-Lazarev, Semyon S. (Simon Abamalek Lazarew)197–99, 211–12, 588–89

Abgal39, 103

acculturation. See identity

adytons85, 277, 350, 353–55, 356, 359

aediles144–45

aerial photography325, 342, 344

afterlife365, 369, 437–38, 444 See also houses of eternity

Aglibol. See also Sacred Garden of Aglibol and Malakbel
association with military130, 300, 456–57, 540
depiction282–84, 300, 456–57, 535, 540
possible cult building361

agora complex88, 322–24

agriculture21–22, 24, 33, 34, 35, 36, 40

aḫlamû-Aramaeans53, 55–56, 57

Ala I Ulpia Singularium180, 187–88

Ala I Thracum Herculana107–8, 109–10, 180–81, 186

Ala I Ulpia Dromedariorum Palmyrenorum185, 294

Ala Octava Palmyrenorum186–87, 188

al-As‘ad, Khaled, Director of Antiquities of the site584

al-Malik al-Mujahid138, 586

Ala Vocontiorum179, 181, 187–88

Allat. See also Temple of Allat
Arabic origin356
cult statue of Allat/Athena117, 356–57, 361
depicted as Athena/Minerva39, 136, 356

al-Ṭabarī120, 121

altars31–32, 36, 39, 202–3, 440, 492–93, 518–19

Amarna letters1–3

Amorites50, 55, 57

amphitheatre321–22, 324, 325, 328, 330

Amurru55

angels130, 136, 584

Anonymous God115, 117, 136–37, 202–3
association with Malakbel and Aglibol130
association with Zeus hypsistos130, 136

Antioch. See coinage of Zenobia and Wahballath

Antiochus (father of Zenobia)153–54, 163

Antonine Plague109–11, 427

Apollo. See Nabu

Appian
account of cavalry raid in 41/40 bc64, 71, 102, 261–62, 291, 385
problems with account64, 102, 385

Arabia Deserta16, 17–18

Arabia Petrae16, 17–18

Aramaic57, 133, 195–200, 390
for private/local spheres200–3, 207–8, 228–30, 231–33, 284, 369–70, 425–26, 517–18, 522, 541

architecture. See domestic architecture; See temples and sanctuaries; See tombs; See urbanization and monumentalization

archival archaeology50–51, 199–200, 336–38, 345, 373, 590

archives of Palmyra234, 324

Ardashir (Ardašīr)99, 145–46

army. See military

Ashurbanipal56–57

Assad regime579–80, 581, 582, 587, 589

Association for the Protection of Syrian Archaeology581

Astarte
temple361
veneration in Rome258, 277
veneration in Temple of Bēl277

astrology130, 280–82, 555

Atargatis103, 534–35 See also Temple of Atargatis; See also Temple of Atargatis (in Rome)

Aurelian. See also second Palmyrene revolt; See also Zenobia
militarization of Palmyra130, 153–54, 384, 389–90, 391 See also Legio I Illyricorum; See also military; See also walls and fortifications
on Palmyrene coinage See coinage of Zenobia and Wahballath
sack of Palmyra113–15, 129, 130–31, 154–55, 285, 384, 389

Aurelius Marcellinus153–54, 174

Baalshamin349, 358 See also Anonymous God; See also Temple of Baalshamin
altar to36, 39
depiction of306–8, 456–57, 535
as ‘Zeus’306, 350

Bādiya17, 29–30, 35 See also hinterland; See also Syrian desert

Badya as-Sham17

banqueting444, 468–69 See also banqueting halls
in funeral iconography373–74, 421, 426–27, 434, 444, 556, 558–59, 560 See also banqueting reliefs; See also sarcophagus reliefs
in funeral rituals420, 456
religious banquets352, 468–69, 519 See also banqueting tesserae
role creating/maintaining identity351, 468–69, 519, 522

banqueting halls340, 350, 351–52, 353, 359, 360–61, 468–69, 519–20, 522–23

banqueting reliefs, 24P29420–21, 426–27, 434, 444, 455–56

banqueting tesserae351, 517, 519, 520–21 See also banqueting; See also religious life; See also Temple of Arsu; See also Temple of Bēl
appearance and materials520, 521
commissioners520–21, 522, 523–26
discovery and context517–18
in Temple of Bēl353, 517–18, 519–20
in Temple of Arsu360–61, 521–22
iconography353–54, 470, 517–19, 522–26
inscriptions517–19
featuring Zenobia164, 539–40
featuring Ḥairān and Wahballath167
production process520–22
as source for religious life517, 519, 524–27
study of469, 517–18
terminology517, 519
as tokens for religious banquets/sacrifices351, 456, 518–20, 521–22
typology517–18, 520–21, 524–26

Banu Kalb41, 120–21, 122

Banū Numayr120–21

barley21, 33–34, 35, 36

Baths of Diocletian90–92, 93
restoration93–95, 116, 131, 134, 329, 410–11 See also Sossianus Hierocles

Beauty of Palmyra507–8

Bedouins1–3, 17–18, 29–30, 34, 42, 43

Bēl351–52 See also Bēl-Hammon; See also Temple of Bēl
depiction300, 456–57
origins of worship57, 299–300
as Zeus/Belos203, 561

Bēl-Hammon360 See also Temple of Bēl-Hammon

Bellerophon Hall115, 117

Bene Agrud350, 360

Bene Komare65–72, 402–3

Benjamin of Tudela59

Benjaminite53, 56

Beth She’arim (Besara)257–58

Bible58–59

bilingualism
different languages, different messages102, 133, 203–5, 207–8, 276, 425–26
for names200–1, 203, 207–8, 258, 350, 541–42, 543
public bilingualism102, 133, 138–39, 154–55, 197, 203–5, 207, 350, 399 See also Tax Tariff

Bir el-Hafir36–37

bishops of Palmyra117–18, 136, 137

bny kmr’102–3, 108–9

bny mtbwl (Bene Mattabol)102–4, 108–9, 360–61

bny myt’101–3, 108–9

bny mʿzyn (Bene Ma’ziyan)103–4, 108–9, 349, 350, 356, 358, 404, 405–7

Britain186, 257, 262

bronze
evidence404, 405–7, 457–58
for honorific statuary403–5
importation221, 404
local serial production404–5
status403, 404

building N20971, 341, 344, See also khans

Caesareum121, 324, 361

Camp of Diocletian. See also groma; See also horreum; See also Praetorium; See also Principia; See also Sossianus Hierocles
chronology of buildings388, 390
dating116, 388, 389–90, 391, 392, 394
foundation93–95, 116, 132–33, 181–83, 384, 388
in early Islamic period120–22, 137–38, 338
monumentalism181–83
origin of name134
separation from civilian settlement183, 389–90

Caracalla110–11, 143–44, 204–5, 297–98, 536–37

caravans103–4, 145–46, 253, 261–65, 270, 294
decline in 160s296–97, 298
decline in third century109–10, 113, 115, 145–46, 262 See also third-century crisis
leadership and organization265, 266, 269–70, 294–95, 296 See also Marcus Ulpius Iarhai; See also Soados
protection of104, 106–7, 109–10, 144, 267–68, 289–90, 292–94, 296, 301
routes253, 261, 266–67, 289–90, 296, 310–11 See also Characene (Mesene); See also China, See also Dura-Europos; See also Egypt; See also Indian Ocean; See also Mesopotamia; See also Persian Gulf; See also Rome; See also Vologesias

Cassius Longinus172, 173–74, 337

Characene (Mesene)
community of Palmyrene merchants103–4
in Pliny295
relative autonomy289–90, 293
trade with145–46, 254, 265, 289–90, 293–96

children493–94
child burials484, 494
artefacts484, 494
childhood of Zenobia166
concept of childhood482, 494
sources481, 482–84, 493–94
transition to adulthood471–72, 491

children (depiction of). See also children
adolescents485, 489, 490–92
as attribute of parent438–39, 443, 454, 489, 490, 492, 553
attributes487, 489–91, 492, 494
differentiation (of children)487, 489–91, 492
dress486–87, 489–91, 492, 494
Parthian-style487, 492
with family425–26, 438–39, 485, 488
in funerary sphere425–26, 484–85
gender differentiation485, 487, 492
hair471–72, 487
infants/very young children489–91
jewellery487, 490–91
to manipulate public opinion482–83
relation to reality481, 489–90, 491, 494
similarities/differences to Graeco-Roman depictions486–87
with siblings489
unaccompanied (on stelae)425–26, 485–86, 493–94

China63–64, 145–46, 264, 265–66, 572–73

Christianity. See also paganism
charitable institutions118
Christological debates117–18
construction of churches118–19, 137, 329–30
reuse of older buildings137, 328, 329
earliest evidence117, 136

citizenship. See Roman citizenship

civil war579–81, 583, 586, 587, 588 See also looting and antiquities theft
destruction by Da‘esh583–88
destruction by Syrian army579–81, 582, 586–87 See also Russian involvement
environmental impacts of19, 81–82, 588–89

climate21 See also Syrian desert
change since antiquity21–22, 29–30, 43
influence on city and society15, 17–18, 19–20, 22–24, 42, 43, 49–50, 81–82, 99–100, 261
location of cityxvii–xviiif, 16
Palmyra as a ‘desert city’15, 17, 24, 265–66

Cohors I Flavia Chalcidenorum Equitata Sagittariorum107–8, 187–88, 412–13

Cohors XX Palmyrenorum185–86, 256, 301, 303–4, 309, 315

coinage531–32
importation/restriction of538, 544, 545
language534, 541–42, 543, 545
local Palmyrene coinage531, 532, 533, 534
circulation531, 538, 545
dating535–37, 538
distinct/Palmyrene forms534, 535, 545
minting535–38, 545
typology533, 534, 536–37
wider influences534–35, 536–37, 545
scholarship on531–33, 535–36, 539–40
of Zenobia and Wahballath163–64, 482–83, 531, 532, 539–40
association with military540, 544, 545
audience and message169–70, 482–83, 531, 532, 540, 542, 543–45
circulation531, 544, 545
coins of Aurelian and Wahballath168–70, 539–42, 545
coins of Wahballath170–71, 543–44, 545
coins of Zenobia163–64, 170–71, 539–40, 543–44, 545
dating539, 540, 543
depiction of Aurelian540, 542
depiction of Wahballath482–83, 540–42, 543, 545
depiction of Zenobia163–64, 170–71, 543–44, 545
distinct/Palmyrene forms169–70, 540, 541–42, 543
minting539, 540, 543, 544
Roman forms170–71, 540, 542, 543–44, 545

colonnaded streets299, 325–26, 330 See also Great Colonnade; See also Transverse Colonnade

congregational mosque121, 138

conservatism. See identity

contracts. See law and contracts

council and people of Palmyra (bwlʾ wdms)102–3, 109, 144–45, 184, 207–8

Council of Chalcedon117–18, 137

Council of Nicaea117, 136

cremation368–69, 426–27

cult of the sun129

Cuneus Equitum Secundorum Clibanarium Palmyrenorum133, 186–87, 188

curia114–15, 322, 323–24

Dacia185, 188, 203, 256–57

Da‘esh583–88

dams35–38, 92

Dawkins, James1–3, 197–99, 581–82

deities203, 456–57, 468–69 See also Aglibol; See also Allat; See also Anonymous God; See also Astarte; See also Atargatis; See also Baalshamin; See also Bēl; See also Bēl-Hammon; See also cult of the sun; See also ‘He whose name is blessed forever’; See also Malakbel; See also Nabû; See also religious life; See also Yarhibol; See also Zeus hypsistos
groupings and triads103, 350–52, 355, 356, 534–35, 545
variety of backgrounds57, 103, 522–23

destruction of site36–37, 484, 521–22 See Syrian civil war

de Vogüé, Marquis Melchior197–99, 213

Dexippus152, 163

diaspora251, 252–53, 258 See also Britain; See also Characene (Mesene); See also Dacia; See also Dura-Europos; See also Egypt; See also Indian Ocean; North Africa; Palestine; See also Persian Gulf; See also Rome; See also Vologesias
evidence of251, 252, 254–55, 268, 306
maintenance of identities99–100, 257, 268, 275, 277, 280–82, 284, 306, 314–15
mercantile diaspora99–100, 103–4, 253–56, 268, 282–84
military diaspora186, 255–57
religious diaspora203, 256–58, 276–77, 282–84, 314–15 See also Dura-Europos; See also Rome; See also Temple of the Palmyrene Gods

Diocletian’s Camp. See Camp of Diocletian

diplomacy54, 65–72, 99–101, 105–6, 120, 252–53, 254, 263–64, 292, 294–95

domestic architecture
in antiquity337, 338–39, 341
arrangement337, 340, 341–42, 343
continuity/evolution340, 341–42, 344, 345
decoration337, 340, 341, 483
external influences340, 341, 343, 344, 345
in the hinterland31–32, 71, 342, 344
history of research71, 335–38, 339, 341–42, 467–68, 483
late antique and early Islamic138, 337–38, 339, 340, 342, 344–45
uses341–42, 343–44

dorsalium452, 454, 552–53

dress453–54 See children (depiction of]); See identity; See men (depiction of); See women (depiction of)

drought21, 29–30, 35, 40

Dura-Europos303–5, 311
conservatism/exclusivity of community306–9, 310, 314–15
depictions of Palmyrene deities303–4, 306–9 See also Julius Terentius, tribune
linguistic diversity304–5
Palmyrene diaspora303–4, 306–10, 538
Palmyrene garrison256, 290, 308–9, 311
Palmyrene religious buildings303–4, 306–9 See also Temple of the Gadde; See also Temple of the Palmyrene Gods
religious interaction303–4, 306–8, 315–16
social/cultural ties19–20, 256, 312, 314, 315–16, 538, 557–58
trade with253, 310–11

duumviri144–45, 150–51

dux of Emesa116, 134–35, 183, 187–88

earthquake (sixth century)135, 338, 345, 388

economy57, 103–5, 110, 222–24, 427, 499–500, 511, 572 See also caravans; See also hinterland; See also quarries; See also Tax Tariff; See also textiles; See also trade

Efqa spring33–34, 49–50, 67–71, 81–82, 361, 588–89

Egypt
hoards of Palmyrene coins538, 544
military presence93, 130, 133, 169, 172, 186, 255–56, 538–39, 540, 545
minting of Palmyrene coins See coinage of Zenobia and Wahballath
Palmyrene diaspora254–56, 266–67
trade with/through254–56, 262, 264, 266–67, 270

epigraphy197, 201–2, 208 See also honorific statuary; See also language; See also tombs
connection with monumentalization of city197, 230
decline after Zenobia208
history of research197–200
as a source197, 399

Euphrates
caravans to/through23–24, 33–34, 84–85, 103–4, 145–46, 206–7, 253, 266, 267
as a frontier143–44, 148, 149, 261, 290
Palmyrene communities and garrisons55, 59–60, 103–4, 107, 145–46, 172, 187

family. See banqueting reliefs; See genealogies; See identity; See pater familias; See tombs; See tribes

Feriale Duranum309, 315

foederati116–17

floods35, 36–37, 84, 88, 92

floodwater farming35–36 See also agriculture

food supply33, 41, 42, 310–11 See also agriculture; See also hinterland; See also water supply

fortifications. See walls and fortifications

four tribes. See tribes

freedmen201–3, 204–5, 231, 242–43, 369, 460–61

Fulvius Macrianus148–49

funerary sculpture. See also banqueting reliefs; See also funerary sphere; See also children (depictions of); See also loculus reliefs; See also men (depictions of); See also sarcophagus reliefs; See also stela reliefs; See also wall paintings; See also women (depictions of])
arrangement/setting460, 509–10
connection to wider trends418–19, 427
conservatism424–27, 443, 453 See also men (depictions of); See also women [depictions of])
corpus417, 418, 420–21, 423–25, 441, 451, 453, 460, 469–70, 484–85, 499
distinct style417–18, 426–27
end of production418–20, 427
history of research417–19
production and dating418–21, 422–23, 508–9 See also sculpture [production processes])
subjects424–25, 441 See also , children (depictions of); See also men (depictions of); See also priests [depictions of]); See also women (depictions of
types of funerary portrait418, 420 See also banqueting reliefs; See also loculus reliefs; See also stela reliefs; See also sarcophagus reliefs; See also wall paintings
use of colour426, 454, 507–8, 511

funerary sphere. See also funerary sculpture; See also necropoleis
burial outside Palmyra186, 257–58
burial practices368–69, 426–27, 484 See also banqueting; See also cremation; See also graves; See also loculi; See also mummification; See also sarcophagi
continuity and change after revolt119, 130–31, 233–34, 243, 418–20, 427, 557
funerary rituals372–73, 374, 377–78, 420, 426–27 See also banqueting

future of the site579, 588–91

future research7, 19, 41, 71–72, 83–84, 85, 199–200, 344, 361–62, 366, 378, 475–76, 508, 511, 517–18, 520, 523–24, 526–27, 536–37, 538, 540 See also future of the site

Gallienus148, 161, 169
murder of Odaenathus152–53, 168
support for Odaenathus148–50, 155–56

gender divisions
in domestic architecture343
in funeral portraits424–26, 441, 443, 444, 445, 556–57
in genealogies441, 443, 485–86, 490, 556–57
in public life402, 445
in public statuary401–3, 413, 445
in religious life467–68, 522
in representations of children485, 487, 492
in wider Graeco-Roman context402–3, 467–68

genealogies201–2, 207–8, 282–84, 399–401, 425–26, 441, 454, 474–86, 490

geophysical prospection67–69, 341, 342

global context6, 57, 63–64, 71, 265

gods. See deities

Gordian III145–46

graffiti39–40, 137, 172, 195–97, 201–2, 252–53, 257–58, 303–5

graves368–69, 426–27, 484

Great Arch. See Monumental Arch

Great Colonnade. See also Monumental Arch; See also Tetrapylon; See also Transverse Colonnade
design and construction88–89, 90, 325–26, 340
extension90, 92, 93, 113–14, 326
function88–89, 90–92, 93, 118–19, 325, 328, 351–52
post-Zenobia114–15, 131, 328–29
transformation into suq41, 121–38, 328

Great Desert. See Syrian desert

Greek133, 138–39, 154–55, 195–97, 201–2, 203–4, 216, 369–70, 425–26

groma121–22, 132–33, 388

Hadrian107–8, 184–85, 276–77 See also Hadriana Palmyra
visit to Palmyra89, 294, 300–1, 536–37

Hadriana Palmyra89, 107–8, 219, 220, 254–55, 294–95

Hadrian’s Wall251, 257

Halifax, William197–99, 269

hamana. See shrines

Hellenistic quarter, 5P16113–14, 321, 322–23, 326–27, 341–42, 533, 590

‘He whose name is blessed forever’440

hinterland
decline31–32, 33–34, 42, 43
excavations31–32, 37–38, 41
economic basis33, 37–38, 39, 221–22, 223 See also Tax Tariff
Neolithic settlement49–50, 81–83, 261
relationship with city15, 33–34, 39, 40, 42, 104–5, 221–22, 223, 267
settlement growth30–32, 36
after Zenobia36, 37–38, 41

Historia Augusta
account of Palmyrene revolt113–14, 154–55, 174, 181, 384, 389–90
account of Odaenathus150, 152, 168
account of Zenobia147, 161, 162, 163, 167, 168, 169, 171, 172, 173, 482
dubious reliability130, 147, 150, 152, 163, 167, 171, 173, 174, 181, 262–63

honorific statues325–26, 403, 409–10, 413–14, 451, 457–58 See also Great Colonnade; See also funerary sculpture; See also sculpture; See also sculpture (production processes); See also stone carving; See also Transverse Colonnade
accompanying inscriptions399–403, 451, 457–58
evidence399, 403, 404, 405–7, 409–10, 457–58, 483
materials399 See also bronze; See also limestone; See also marble
motivations and sponsors103–4, 401–2
positioning/location399, 401–2, 405, 410, 457–58
recipients399–402
caravan leaders104, 399–401 See also Marcus Ulpius Iarhai; See also Soados
imperial family399–401, 411–13
military/civic leadership106–7, 399–401, 411–12, 483
Odaenathus and family323, 399–401, 411–12
renewal/restoration of402, 403–4

horreum (granary)
construction132–33, 392, 394
destruction/rebuilding in sixth century135, 388

house E902339–40, 343

House of Achilles337, 555

houses of eternity’ (bt ‘lm’)365, 369

hypogea370–71, 373–74, 377–78, 549–50, 560, 562 See also wall paintings

identity. See also diaspora; See also gender divisions; See also language
conservatism of101, 111, 218, 284, 300, 306, 314–15, 425–27, 476
dress as expression of identity306–8, 314–15, 456, 459–61
earliest evidence52, 101–2, 105–6
economic aspects103–4, 107–8, 251–52, 255–56, 268
expressed through architecture85, 86–87
familial aspects110–11, 349, 425–27, 460, 467–68, 476, 490, 493–94 See also family; See also genealogies; See also pater familias
in the first century101–2, 103, 105–6
gender See gender divisions
linguistic aspects99–100, 144, 154–55, 284–85, 541
loss/rejection of99–100, 154–55, 252, 257, 280–82, 306, 314–15
as overlapping and changing101, 110–11, 257, 258, 268, 280–82
religious aspects99–100, 103, 111, 203, 300, 314–15, 350, 351–52, 361–62 See also diaspora
Roman aspects105–6, 107–8, 109–11, 144–45, 154–55, 300, 460
territorial aspects16, 23–24, 104–6, 223
in the third century101, 108, 110–11
tribal aspects See tribes

India. See Indian Ocean

Indian Ocean252–53, 254–56, 261–62, 264, 265–66

Ingholt, Harald
archive and diaries199–200, 417–18
documentation of murals549–50, 557–59
work on funerary portraits417–18, 441–42, 453, 508–9

inheritance227, 238, 240–41, 243, 402

Islam119, 120, 137–38, 345 See also congregational mosque

ius italicum143–44, 297–98, 301

Jafnids116–17, 135, 137

Japanese missions63–64, 366, 442–43, 484, 582

Jebel Chaar tableland32, 39, 41

Jews
community in Beth She’arim257–58
community in Palmyra59, 136–37, 230–31
portrayal of Palmyra as Jewish58–59, 60, 136–37
portrayal of Zenobia as Jewish163

John, bishop of Palmyra117–18, 137

John II, bishop of Palmyra118, 137

John Malalas59, 60, 134–35, 183, 394

John of Ephesus117

Josephus15, 59–60

Julius Terentius, tribune256, 303–4, 309

Khālid b. al-Walīd119–20, 183–84

khans93–95, 326–27 See also building N209

Khartabil, Bassel589

Kültepe/Kaniš51–52

language195–97 See also Aramaic; See also bilingualism; See also Greek; See also Latin See also Safaitic
after 273133, 138–39, 154–55, 197, 390
different roles200, 201–4, 284, 425–26
in funerary sphere39, 200, 201–2, 228–30, 231–33, 369–70, 425–26
and identity99–100, 144, 154–55, 284–85, 541
official languages138–39, 144, 200, 201–2, 207–8 See also bilingualism

Latin133, 197, 200, 204–7, 276, 369–70

law and contracts. See also sale of funerary properties; See also Tax Tariff
early sources (second millennium bc)51–52, 54
influences and continuity57, 237–38, 240–41, 243
legal language207–8, 216, 227–28, 243
penalty clauses240–41
sources227, 230–31, 234, 238, 241, 242, 243
witnesses54, 233–34, 241, 242

Legio I Illyricorum
departure116, 183
in Palmyra115–16, 130, 153–54, 155, 384, 389–90, 391

Legio III Cyrenaica129, 130

limestone18, 405, 503 See also quarries; See also sculpture (production processes); See also stone carving
carving of500, 501–2, 503 See also stone carving
for funerary sculpture420, 503 See also funerary sculpture
hard limestone409, 503
for honorific statuary405–9, 457–58, 503
shift from softer to harder limestone195–97
soft limestone405–7

limitanei116, 183, 187–88

Little Desert. See Syrian desert

loculi368–69, 373–74, 376, 420 See also loculus reliefs

loculus reliefs368–69, 420, 434, 441, 452, 460, 488, 504–6, 581–82

looting and antiquities theft197–99, 211–12, 373, 417–18, 484, 531, 538, 581–82
during second Palmyrene revolt129, 130, 154–55, 285
during Syrian civil war581, 582–83

magistrates144, 200–1, 203–4, 349, 411–12

magnetogram data67–69

Malakbel. See also Sacred Garden of Aglibol and Malakbel
association with military130, 203, 540
association with sun39, 129–30
depiction of282–84, 457, 540

Manawat103, 350–51, 360

marble
carving of500, 506–7 See also stone carving
for honorific statuary409–13, 457–58
importation413
local production413
preservation409–10
status403

Marcus Antonius64, 71, 102, 261–62, 291, 385

Marcus Ulpius Iarhai207, 295

Mari52–54

Mari archives23–24, 30–31, 52–54
close relationship with Mari53, 54
conflict with Sutaeans52–53, 56

Marinus, bishop of Palmyra117, 136

Marsyas536–37

men401–3, 424–26, 441, 453 See also gender divisions; See also men (depiction of); See also pater familias

men (depiction of)405–7, 423–24, 451 See also men (depiction of); See also priests (depiction of
arm-sling pose439–40, 452, 453, 454, 457–59
as conservative/generic405–7, 425–26, 443, 451, 453–54, 459–60, 461, 471–72, 476, 560, 574
attributes453, 454–55, see also dorsalium
caravan leaders454–55 See also caravans; See also Marcus Ulpius Iarhai; See also Soadas
changes and individualization451, 453, 454, 459, 461, 509, 553
difference between spheres458–59
dress
chiton and himation405–7, 409–10, 411–12, 434, 452, 453, 454, 457–59, 460–61
cuirassed409–10, 411
Parthian dress444, 455–56 See also banqueting reliefs
trousers405–7, 457–59
toga409–10, 411–12, 457–58, 459–61, 556–57
hairstyle453, 454–55, 553
influences405–7, 425–26, 439–40, 451, 458–59, 460–61, 473–74, 560
jewellery405–7, 453, 471–72, 523–24 See also signet seal
reclining (surrounded by family)444, 455–56, 492, 558 See also banqueting reliefs
holding drinking vessel444, 455–56, 556

Mesopotamia. See also Characene (Mesene); See also Vologesias
community of Palmyrene merchants261–62
trade with262, 265, 289, 293

military. See also walls and fortifications
demilitarization in fifth century116, 183
evidence179, 184–85
Palmyrene military/militia40, 106–7, 146–47, 187, 311
cavalry146–47, 173, 184–85
destruction115–16, 173
integration into Roman army187, 311
leadership106–7, 144, 146–47, see also stratēgos
protection of caravans104, 106–7, 109–10, 143–44, 145–46, 184–85, 187, 267–68, 289–90, 293–94, 301
units abroad107, 145–46, 185–86, 187, 311 See also Dura-Europos
right to maintain own military105–6, 144
Palmyrene auxiliary units in Roman army133, 184–85, 186–87, 255–57, 294, 311 See also Ala Octava Palmyrenorum; See also Cohors XX Palmyrenorum; See also Cuneus Equitum Secundorum Clibanarium Palmyrenorum; See also Numerus Palmyrenorum sagittarorium

Palmyrene individuals in Roman army184–85, 186, 257
remilitarization under Justinian116–17, 134–35, 136–37, 183–84, 384, 387–88, 393 See also Camp of Diocletian; See also dux of Emesa; See also walls and fortifications
Roman garrison (after revolt)181, 183–84, 384, 389–90
Roman garrison (before revolt)180–81, 187–88 See also Ala I Thracum Herculana; See also Ala I Ulpia Singularium; See also Ala Vocontiorum; See also Cohors I Flavia Chalcidenorum Equitata Sagittariorum
economic aspect of garrison180, 183, 185
influence on Palmyrene identity105–6, 107–8, 109–10, 300
involvement in tax collection105–6, 107–8, 109–10
militarization after revolt115–16, 131–32, 134, 181–83, 384, 389–90 See also Camp of Diocletian; See also Legio I Illyricorum; See also Praetorium; See also Strata Diocletiana; See also walls and fortifications

minimis. See coinage

Mithras107, 309, 311, 315

Monophysitism117–18, 137

Monumental Arch93, 326, 584, 585–86, 588–89

Mordtmann, Andreas D.197–99, 532–33, 538

mosaics115, 337, 340, 483, 555 See also Bellerophon Hall; See also House of Achilles

Moutlak, Ibrahim581

mummification168, 368–69, 426–27, 569–71, 572, 586

Musil, Alois33–34, 36–37

Nabu86, 355 See also Temple of Nabu

Nebuchadnezzar59

necropoleis365, 367–68, 369, 484 See also funerary sculpture; See also funerary sphere; See also northern necropolis; See also south-eastern necropolis; See also south-western necropolis; See also tombs; See also Valley of the Tombs
history of research365–66

nefesh369, 453–54

nomadism. See pastoralism See also Jafnids; See also semi-nomadism

northern necropolis367–68, 376–77, 391, 579–80, 581, 582, 587

north-west quarter89, 113–15, 117, 118–19, 120–21, 339

Notitia Antiochena118

Notitia dignitatum115–16, 133, 183, 186–87, 188, 255–56, 384, 389–90

Numerus Palmyrenorum sagittarorium185, 186–87, 256–57

numismatics. See coinage

Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek3

Odaenathus
background and rise146–47
letters to Shapur100
military campaigns See also Monumental Arch
against Persia (262)149–50
against Quietus (261)148–49
against Shapur (260)148
second campaign against Persia (267)151–52
as most powerful civil and military figure in East149, 150, 155–56
murder152–53, 167–68
titles146
consularis147–48, 166
corrector totius Orientis149
dux Romanorum149
exarchos146–47, 166
imperator (unhistorical)150
‘king of kings’147, 150 See also Monumental Arch
Persicus maximus149–50
‘prince’146–47
senator100, 146–47

olive oil production33, 36, 41, 220–21, 310–11

opus palmyrenum337

opus sectile329, 342, 553

Orientalists15, 17, 24, 33–34, 213, 214, 532–33

oval plaza87–88, 90, 93

paganism
anti-pagan edicts117, 136, 327
destruction of temples117, 328 See also Temple of Allat
persistence of115, 117
repurposing of temples5, 118, 136, 327–28, 360 See also Temple of Bēl

palaeoclimatology22

Palmyra
in the Bronze Age30–31, 50–51, 81–83
under the Caliphate119–21, 122, 137–38, 183–84, see also congregational mosque;, suq
decline into village95, 122
destruction of village for excavations484
first systematic archaeological excavations3–5, 95, 122, 197–99, 336–37, 517–18, 590
in the Hellenistic period63–71, 83–84, 341 See also Appian; See also Hellenistic quarter; See also Marcus Antonius
in the early Islamic period95, 121–22, 137–38
in late antiquity See also Christianity; See also military; See also Diocletian’s Camp
changing role93–95, 131, 133, 134, 155, 327, 389–90 See also Camp of Diocletian; See also walls and fortifications
civic status131, 133, 134–35, 154–55
continuity after second Palmyrene revolt113–15, 130–31, 134, 154–55, 243, 328, 389–90
Justinianic renovation118, 134–35, 183, 327, 384, 394 See also Baths of Diocletian; See also Sossianus Hierocles
transformation after second Palmyrene revolt70, 93–95, 113–14, 131–32, 143, 154–55, 262, 324, 327, 329, 390, 419–20
maps and plans ofxvii–xviiif, 81, 335
as metrocolonia as under Odaenathus100, 150–51 See also Odaenathus
Neolithic presence49–51, 81–83, 261
Palmyra’s ‘dark age’56–57, 59
Persian occupation119
as a polis86–87, 100, 102–3, 104–5 See also caravans; See also council and people of as Roman Palmyra; See also Temple of Bēl; See also trade; See also urbanization and monumentalization
colonia100, 114–15, 143–45, 154–55, 297–98, 301, 536–37 See Tax Tariff
rediscovery and visitors in seventeenth and nineteenth centuries1–3, 197–99, 365–66, 531, 532–33
in second millennium bc (Tadmor/Tadmūr)51, 52, 54, 81–83
evidence30–31, 50–52, 54–56 See also Mari archives
lack of evidence49, 51, 56, 57, 590
in Jewish traditions57–59
relationship with nomads56
second Palmyrene revolt See second Palmyrene revolt
third-century crisis See third-century crisis
under Zenobia152–53, 156, 171 See also Zenobia

Palmyra Museum583, 586–87

Palmyra Portrait Project418, 420–21, 469–70, 484–85, 581–82

Palmyrene. See hinterland

Parthia
cultural relationship with Palmyra290, 298–300, 301, 312, 523–24, 561–62
end of Parthian rule99, 298
Palmyra’s special position between the two empires289–90, 292–93, 294, 295–96, 309–10
political relationship with Palmyra289–91, 292–93, 294–95, 297–98
trade293, 294, 296, 297–98

pastoralism17, 18, 23–24, 29–31, 33, 39, 40, 56, 105, 267
interaction between settled and nomadic groups16, 23–24, 33, 39–40, 41, 56

pater familias167–68, 420–21, 426–27, 434, 444, 467–68, 491 See also banqueting reliefs; See also gender divisions

Patricius, ‘Komes of the East’134–35, 394

Paul of Samosata163, 173

paved wadi71, 84, 87, 92, 93–95, 96, 213

people of Palmyra (gbl tdmry’)101–2, 203–4, 207–8, 294, 401

Persian Gulf. See also Characene (Mesene
Palmyrene diaspora254
trade with/through254–55, 262, 265–66, 267, 293–94

Pliny the Elder1–3, 6, 15, 99, 292–93

political organization. See also council and people of Palmyra; See also duumviri; See also law; See also magistrates; See also people of Palmyra (gbl tdmry’); See also stratēgos; See also Tax Tariff
council (boulē)86–87, 88, 102, 109, 204–8, 216, 251–52, 323, 324 See also agora complex
incorporation into province of Syria289, 290–92, 294
incorporation into province of Syria Phoenice143–44, 297–98
under Odaenathus100, 150–51
as Roman colonia100, 114–15, 143–45, 154–55, 297–98, 301, 536–37
under Zenobia152–53, 156, 171

Porta Praetoria132–33, 388

portrait habit419–20, 427, 467 See also funerary sculpture; See also honorific sculpture; See also sculpture

Praetorium135, 136–33, 338

prayer167, 440

priests424–25 See also priests (depiction of
as conservative status symbol424–25, 469
familial/hereditary aspect424–25, 434, 473–74, 475–76
nature of priesthood167, 424–25, 469, 473–74

priests (depiction of)424–25, 454–55, 469–70, 472–73, 518–19 See also banqueting tesserae
attire and attributes470–74
expense of470–71, 475–76
priestly hat434, 444, 454–55, 458–59, 470–71, 472–74, 475–76, 518–19
busts470–71, 475–76, 522
reclining at banquet518–19, 522 See also banqueting; See also banqueting tesserae; See also men [depiction of])
as status marker469, 474–75, 476

Principia
construction132–33, 391, 392, 394
dating by inscription116, 388, 391
destruction and rebuilding in sixth century135, 388, 394

prison (Palmyra)1–3, 579–80

processions118–19, 328, 351–52, 353, 445, 467–68

Procopius131–32, 134–35, 172, 183, 393, 394

propaganda161–62, 585, 587–89

prosopography517

Ptolemy16, 17–18

Pudicitia type409–10, 411–12, 413–14, 439–40

Qalaat Ibn Maan138

Qasr al-Heir al-Gharbi37–38, 41

Qasr al-Heir al-Sharki41

Qaṭna50–51, 52–54

Quarries405, 503, 567 See also limestone; See also stone carving
collaboration in production501
incomplete/rejected blocks113–14, 567, 568
production of sarcophagi, pillars, and altars at quarries422–23, 503
quarry workers567
tools and techniques568–69
transportation503, 568

religious life467–69, 526–27 See also altars; See also afterlife; See also banqueting tesserae; See also Christianity; See also diaspora; See also deities; See also Dura-Europos; See also Islam; See also paganism; See also prayer; See also priests; See also processions; See also shrines; See also temples and sanctuaries; See also Rome
connection with Palmyrene identity99–100, 103, 111, 203, 300, 314–15, 350, 351–52, 361–62, 522–23 See also diaspora
Graeco-Roman influences300, 522–26
in hinterland31–32, 36, 39, 41, 306
imperial cult109–10, 203, 292, 300, 361 See also Caesareum
military cults136, 282, 309, 315 See also Malakbel; See also Mithras; See also Yarhibol
Near Eastern influences57, 86, 299–300, 356, 473–74, 522–24
private/domestic religion130, 440, 467–68

restorations/reconstruction571–72, 582, 587–88
in future579, 588–91

Roman citizenship
in first–second centuries110–11, 143–44, 147, 207, 276, 280–82
in the third century110–11, 143–44, 147, see also ius italicum
through military service185, 256–57

Roman Climate Optimum22

Rome
epigraphic evidence of Palmyrene religions276–77, 278–82
Palmyrene diaspora258, 262, 275, 276, 282–84
representations of Palmyrene deities276, 277–78, 279–84
slaves from east275–78
temples dedicated to Palmyrene deities276, 277–79
trade with258, 262

Russian involvement212, 213–14, 586, 587–89, 591 See also civil war

Sacred Garden of Aglibol and Malakbel108–9, 129, 361, 404–5, 407–8

sacrifices86–87, 256, 278–79, 309, 351, 352, 353, 467–68, 470–71, 518–19

Safaitic39–40, 195, 305

salt23, 33–34, 56, 218, 221, 223, 224

sarcophagi368–69, 373–74, 420, 421, 558–59 See also sarcophagus reliefs

sarcophagus reliefs420, 421, 426–27, 455–56, 492

satellite photos32, 587

sculpture. See also funerary sculpture; See also honorific statues; See also sculpture (production processes); See also stone carving
commonalities between honorific, funerary, and religious sculpture405–7, 413–14, 574
Graeco-Roman influences299, 399, 403, 405–7, 409–10, 413–14, 419–20, 451, 460–61, 473–74
local forms399, 407–8, 417–18, 426–27, 451, 460–61
Near Eastern influences299, 312, 404
Palmyrene-influenced sculpture produced in Dura-Europos306–8, 312–14
Palmyrene-influenced sculpture produced in Rome277, 279, 282–84
Palmyrene sculpture imported to Dura-Europos306–8, 312–14