Advances, challenges and prospective of sustainable use of capybara (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris) in Colombia

Introduction

In Colombia, the use of wildlife is a common activity despite being considered illegal in some cases (Baptiste et al., 2002). Historically, in the country, the use of wildlife has focused on the extraction of individuals from the wild either for subsistence (Lasso and Morales-Betancourt, 2021) or for commercial purposes, illegally; while legal trade has been based on the production of a few species (Mancera and Reyes, 2008). One of the species of greatest management interest for its profit goals has been the capybara Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris (Figure 1). This is the largest rodent of the world (up to 52 kg adult weight) and exhibits the following traits: first reproduction occurs at one year of age, average litter size is four, and there are up to 1.2 gestations/year; adults are sexually active throughout the year and group size goes from 10 to 100 individuals (Moreira et al., 2013b). These life history traits and a good habitat facilitate large populations, which together with a wide distribution in South America, have made the capybara a species of least concern (LC) in extinction risk assessments (Reid, 2016). Due to both its biological characteristics and its meat, this species is considered to have high potential to satisfy the need for high-quality protein in Neotropical countries (Nogueira-Filho and da Cunha Nogueira, 2018). Throughout its distribution, other capybara byproducts such as skin and manufactured pieces are incorporated into its direct use (Quintana and Bolkovick, 2013) as well as the potential for tourism to observe its populations and habitats (Tapper and Programme United and Species Secretariat, 2006).

Capybara has been legally and illegally exploited in the Colombian Orinoquia region, to supply the market for dried and salted meat, in Venezuela and some regions in Colombia during Easter. Unfortunately, the uncontrolled capybara meat exploitation has depleted this resource in the natural environment in certain areas (Hernández et al., 1983). For this reason, it is necessary to establish guidelines for the capybara use to be sustainable and to guarantee the conservation of its populations.

In this sense, in Colombia, in recent decades, different planning instruments have been developed such as policies, plans, and programs, in order to guide the protection, management, and use of biodiversity in general, as well as ratification of international agreements that seek to incorporate the sustainable use of biodiversity (ONU, 2017). In such documents, it is stated that wildlife use may become a conservation tool, since in addition to bringing economic and social benefits, it could encourage its preservation (Ojasti and Dallmeier, 2000). In this article, we examine the following aspects of capybara use in Colombia: 1) the potential for sustainable use of some capybara populations in the Colombian Orinoquia, based on demographic and habitat aspects, 2) the background of the commercial exploitation of the capybara and regulations, 3) pilot tests of use and socioeconomic aspects, 4) the challenges to achieve sustainable management of capybara in Colombia, and 5) prospects for the use of capybara in this country.

Capybara populations in the Colombian Orinoquia with potential for sustainable use

In Colombia, capybara H. hydrochaeris is distributed in the Orinoquia and Amazonia regions. Population abundance varies among these regions according to habitat quality and hunting intensity. The largest populations are found in the flooded savannahs of the Orinoquia region, in Arauca and Casanare departments. Smaller populations live in high non-flooded savannas of Meta and Vichada departments (López-Arévalo et al., 2002). In Amazonia, capybaras are found in humid tropical forests in the Caquetá, Putumayo, and Amazonas departments (Moreira et al., 2013a).

In flooded savannas, several populations have been evaluated whose densities vary with habitat traits, distance from human settlements, presence of agro-industrial crops, and hunting pressure (Figure 2). Population estimates show variations in density from 0.11 ind/ha (Aldana-Domínguez and Angel-Escobar, 2007) to 5.93 ind/ha (Atuesta-Dimian et al., 2014) in the dry season and 0.11 ind/ha (López-Arévalo et al., 2016) to 6.44 ind/ha (Atuesta-Dimian et al., 2014) in the rainy season. A multiyear analysis of six density estimates in the same locality between 2005 and 2017 agrees with the patterns of variation between dry and wet seasons, with fewer variations among years (Tiboche-García and López-Arévalo, 2021). In addition, that study showed that the population evaluated in that period had a potential for sustainable use.

We highlight that the largest populations are on properties where their owners have made habitat improvements and maintain populations by controlling illegal hunting. These densities make it possible to identify the areas in which commercial hunting is possible, in locations with densities close to 3 ind/ha, a reference value established within the carrying capacity limits for the Venezuelan savannas estimated based on population dynamics monitoring during each harvest phase (Ojasti, 1973, 2003). In other areas with lower densities, population recovery is a better option, as well as carrying out some ecotourism activities based on this species and its habitats.

In the flooded savannahs, the natural variations of capybara population density within the same year are due to variations in resource availability, which is influenced by water dynamics. To assess habitat quality for capybara populations in the Arauca and Casanare departments, Cardona (2017) constructed a spatially explicit regional habitat suitability index (HSI). She used natural variables such as the presence/absence of diverse types of savannahs that provide much of the capybara’s diet; escape/refuge cover, such as riparian forests and scrub, and water availability represented by lagoons and rivers. She also included anthropic variables such as presence and distance to human settlements and road infrastructure, which can affect the intensity of hunting pressure. In that assessment, Cardona (2017) found that around 80% of the assessed area had medium (25%) to high and very high (55%) habitat suitability (Figure 2). However, current habitat transformation due to rice and oil palm cultivation (which have increased recently), intensity of land use for cattle ranching, and infrastructure associated with oil extraction may affect capybara abundance in the region. These last factors represent anthropic pressures that reduce habitat quality and may decrease capybara populations in the midterm.

Background of capybara commercial exploitation and regulations

Commercial capybara exploitation in Colombia began in 1935 (Ojasti, 1973), and from that time to present, it is possible to identify at least four regulatory stages. The first one corresponds to the absence of legislation on the subject, which allowed excessive hunting during the dry season. Such exploitation was intended for demand in Venezuela during Easter and lasted until 1958, when the first export permits between Colombia and Venezuela were issued (Bravo-Malca and Gómez, 2017). Despite regulation, by 1960s, illegal capybara meat trade to Venezuela continued and together with farmers’ practice of killing and selling capybaras to reduce their populations considered as pests for cattle ranching (Hernández et al., 1983) capybara populations were reduced until they disappeared locally in some places in Orinoquia. This situation led to a second stage in the regulations, represented by a total ban of capybara extraction in 1964 and later, from 1969, by a partial ban (Ministerio Agricultura., 1964). The latter regulation allowed commercial hunting of adult males only during the months of January to March and hunting for scientific purposes throughout the year, regardless of the age or sex of the individuals (INDERENA, 1969).

The third stage occurs from the year 1985 when commercial exploitation of capybara was opened under the semi-extensive husbandry scheme, with the commercialization of meat and skins reaching the use of more than 80,000 specimens from 1991 to 2001 whose destination was the Venezuelan market (Bravo-Malca and Gómez, 2017). Also, small volumes of skins were occasionally sent to Europe. Unfortunately, an evaluation of this system showed that much of the capybaras used came from wild populations and not from animal husbandry, causing such systems to lose strength. Then, a fourth stage began in 2000, when more restrictive regulations from environmental and sanitary agencies appeared to control consumption of wild meat and byproducts. The foregoing has meant that to date, and despite new information on capybara populations and habitat generated in the last two decades, the legal and sustainable use of capybara is not a reality. Recently, based on the evaluation and adjustment of current regulatory instruments related to commercial hunting, there is a draft resolution stating a global quota for use of capybara populations in the floodplain savannas in the Colombian Orinoquia (Arauca and Casanare). Such a quota was adjusted from a previous estimate done by Sarmiento and Montenegro (2014), that used the following inputs: 1) a percentage of population size indicated as sustainable by Mesa-Gonzalez et al. (2014), 2) a global estimate of population density for the whole region of flooded savannas based on several in situ estimates, and 3) spatially explicit modeling of habitat quality for the region. This first estimate suggested an initial experimental quota of about 70,000 individuals the first year, which is the lowest limit of the confidence interval for the mean capybara abundance estimate for Arauca and Casanare departments (Sarmiento and Montenegro, 2014). However, this quota was not used because of lack of a resolution allowing legal capybara extraction. More recently, the global extraction quota for the same area was re-estimated, partially following the same guidelines, but adjusting for the reduction in habitat quality due to the increase in extensive monocultures of rice and palm and using more recent population estimates (Tiboche-García and López-Arévalo, 2021). The adjustment also considered a relationship between group size and abundance, and the new estimate included information from at least 29 densities recently estimated by the research group, giving an estimate of the global quota of about 50,000 individuals corresponding to 10% of the population. In addition, there are the reference terms for environmental impact studies needed to obtain the environmental license for commercial hunting of capybara through Resolution No. 500.36.20-0892 of October 6, 2020, issued by the regional environmental authority (Corporinoquia). However, the Ministry of the Environment has yet to define the global quota for the use of capybara so that the process can begin.

Thus, although regulations have existed, there are weaknesses that have affected the legal and sustainable use of the capybara. These weaknesses are a low technical capacity to apply management plans and financial resources for adequate control of compliance with regulations, recently linked to a lack of political will.

Pilot essays of harvest and socioeconomic aspects

Traditionally, the capture and sacrifice of capybaras in Colombia and Venezuela consisted of slaughtering them in the field with a blow to the head and processing them in the savannah or in a place conditioned as a slaughterhouse, which has been questioned regarding the quality of meat, animal welfare and ethics (Macdonald et al., 2013; Nogueira-Filho and da Cunha Nogueira, 2018). In response to the above, essays using wild capybaras have been carried out to determine the appropriate methods to guarantee animal welfare and compliance with sanitary aspects (Álvarez-Méndez, 2006; Quiroga and Álvarez-Méndez, 2014). For this, two pilot essays have been carried out, with a sample of 35 capybaras in the year 2006 and 12 capybaras in the year 2021, selecting adult male and female individuals older than 3 years (weighting more than 35 kg) from which different yields and byproducts were obtained (Figure 3). From these pilot essays, we highlight the following main results: 1) The effectiveness of the stunning of the animals was evaluated using a captive bolt gun that avoids stress on the animal and improves meat quality. 2) Good practices in the benefit process were standardized in accordance with current regulations, and those include appropriate methods for individual capture and selection, desensitization following selection in the field using a captive bolt gun, transportation to the slaughterhouse that must take no more than 40 minutes, unloading of animals, slaughter, hoisting, bleeding, and dressing (Ministerio de Salud y Protección Social, 2016). 3) A mobile benefit plant was designed for meat, its byproducts, and residue processing. Such a plant consists of an expandable truck that fits into fixed structures existing at the slaughter facility.

Capybara meat nutritional features have been reviewed for both wild and farmed animals (Nogueira-Filho and da Cunha Nogueira, 2018; Ali and Jones, 2020). These papers emphasize the high nutritional value and quality due to its moisture content (71.9–76.59%, g/100g), protein (20–25%, g/100g), fat (0.65–3.9%, g/100g), and ash (0.9–1.2% g/100g). In addition, capybara meat has low amounts of cholesterol (23–52%, mg/100g), high levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids, and low levels of saturated fatty acids. These qualities make capybara meat a valuable source of animal protein for human consumption.

On the other hand, during the years 2019 to 2021, the advances made toward the management for capybara sustainable use may be summarized as: 1) A market study focused on meats and byproducts (processed meats and skins) was conducted. With this purpose, a financial model was developed based on tests of concept of different capybara byproducts to several users (Figure 4). In addition, the acceptance of capybara meat by potential consumers was surveyed. A sample size was estimated based on the Colombian population, including only those departments with the greatest potential for acceptance, considering their consumption of exotic meats and geographic proximity, yielding a subpopulation of 23,437,691. The final sample size was estimated as 84 respondents which represents a reliability of 1.28 with an error rate of 7%. It was identified that 80% of surveyed people would consume meat that has less fat, and that it is produced through a sustainable process that guarantees conservation of the species. Also, besides traditional marketing channels (restaurants and grills), the respondents were willing to purchase capybara meat or byproducts through alternate channels such as supermarkets.

With the implementation of the mobile plant, this market could bill about USD 225,000 annually, but significant financing is required from the owners or investors to start the implementation of the mobile plant. 2) Training cycles for different stakeholders and the general public were conducted as well as the design of graphic pieces for dissemination in institutional social networks and the strengthening of associations and community action boards. 3) An environmental and cultural fair on the uses of biodiversity and participation in the footwear, leather and leather goods, inputs, and technology fair (IFLS+EICI) was carried out. 4) Submission of five environmental impact studies from five properties with sustainable harvesting potential, which were additionally supported with property zoning, habitat improvement materials, and conservation agreements were achieved (for details, see http://www.proyectochiguiro.org/).

Challenges to achieve capybara sustainable management in Colombia

In the political framework of the country, bioeconomy is defined as “an economic practice that efficiently and sustainably manages biodiversity and biomass to generate new value-added products, processes and services based on knowledge and innovation that allow the creation of new growth levers, development and progress in the regions of Colombia” (Gobierno de Colombia, 2020). However, to incorporate capybara and its habitats in Colombian bioeconomy, we identified the following challenges: 1) Overcome the lack of political decision to grant the annual global harvest quota that is essential to discourage illegal exploitation. There are recurrent seizures of capybara meat ranging from a few kilograms to more than 4 tons, according to local news, without an analysis of the origin of this meat, destination, and procedure followed to date. 2) Have officials from the environmental authorities well trained to provide advice and support to users interested in obtaining the environmental license so that they can carry out the procedures properly, since the requirements are extensive and complex. In addition, the environmental authorities require better control to guarantee that the populations are used within sustainable limits and following an adequate management plan, reducing illegal trade, and protecting the natural habitat. 3) Enable capybara sustainable use and maintenance of its habitat as a strategy to stop the expansion of the agricultural frontier that during the last 5 years has increased areas to rice crops in the Casanare department. This trend of expanding monoculture will continue, as suggested by mechanized rice production in Casanare, which reached 42% of the national production in the second half of 2022 (DANE-Fedearroz, 2023). 4) Continue with educational and outreach campaigns that promote understanding of biodiversity sustainable use to reach the objective of “protecting and ensuring the sustainable use of natural capital and improving environmental quality and governance”, set forth in the Biodiversity Action Plan 2016–2030 (Minambiente., 2017). In particular, for capybara direct use, it is necessary to emphasize that such activity requires the incorporation of practices that guarantee the well-being of the animals, mentioned above, by producers and consumers and comply with the safety standards contemplated in current sanitary regulations. 5) More studies on zoonotic illnesses are required, although there are some advances in the identification of hemoparasites, serological, microbiological, and histological studies (Barragán and Álvarez-Méndez, 2014).

Perspectives

Future scenarios toward the sustainable use of capybara in Colombia have two directions, the first one focuses on the continuity of illegal use and the excessive transformation of the habitat, as well as other pressures on the flooded savannas such as climate change. This direction would result in local extinction of more populations; increase in capybara meat confiscations and in the future, listing of capybara as another one of threatened species, at least at the national level.

The second direction is the definition of the global quota and the inclusion of capybara within the country’s bioeconomy strategy with different direct uses (meat, skins) and indirect uses (ecotourism, cultural values). This scenario will facilitate this species conservation and the equitable distribution of benefits, under an adaptive management framework. In such a scenario, environmental authorities are expected to implement a management plan for this species, including the monitoring of legal harvest with participation of users and periodically adjusting the harvest quotas. On the other hand, capybara commercial hunting under a harvest quota assigned and regulated by the environmental authority, which should be based on population abundance and dynamics, including post-hunting rate of population growth, will allow the local populations to maintain themselves. This scenario will make it possible to continue managing the socioeconomic aspects associated with the legal use of capybara, whose sustainable use is a clear option for the persistence of healthy populations in a biologically and culturally diverse Orinoquia.

Conclusions

Capybara populations in the flooded savannas of the Colombian Orinoquia have the potential to be used sustainably. However, the sustainable use of capybara and its habitats does not depend only on the biotic potential of the country and existing national policies, but also on having environmental authorities with the economic and technical capacities to effectively monitor and control the capybara commercial hunting process and its sustainable use, with the participation of users committed to the legality of their activity.

About the Author(s)

Hugo Fernando López Arévalo graduated as a Biologist (Universidad Nacional de Colombia) and obtained a Master of Science degree at PRMVS -Universidad Nacional, Heredia Costa Rica and Ph.D. at Instituto de Ecología, INECOL, México. His research focuses on Wildlife management and conservation, animal ecology applied to biodiversity conservation, landscape ecology and protected areas. He is a professor and mammal curator at the Instituto de Ciencias Naturales of Universidad Nacional de Colombia since August 2000. He is a member of the research group on Conservation and Management of Wildlife, Latin American Association of Conservation and Wildlife management (ALCOM) and the Colombian Society of Mammalogy. Corresponding author: [email protected]

Elizabeth Mesa-González is a Biologist and independent researcher with a Master of Science-Biology from the Universidad Nacional de Colombia. Her professional experience is focused on the knowledge, management, and conservation of wild mammals. She has conducted research on wildlife in various areas where oil exploration and exploitation projects, as well as infrastructure works, are developed. She has been involved in ecological assessments and characterizations of fauna communities to identify conservation sites and has modeled the geographic distribution of some threatened mammal species. Her work also includes studies on populations of economically important species such as capybaras, and she has contributed to the development of management programs for their sustainable use and conservation. In addition, she has participated in community training processes on topics related to knowledge, management, and conservation of wildlife.

Olga L. Montenegro graduated as a Biologist (Universidad Nacional de Colombia) and obtained a Master of Science and PhD degrees from University of Florida, Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation. She has experience and academic interests in animal ecology applied to biodiversity conservation in general and mammal conservation in particular. She is a professor at the Instituto de Ciencias Naturales of Universidad Nacional de Colombia, since August 2005. Currently, she is a member of the research group on Conservation and Management of Wildlife, and the Colombian Society of Mammalogy.

Catherine Mora-Beltrán graduated as a Biologist (Universidad Nacional de Colombia). She has experience and academic interests in animal plant interactions, wildlife management and conservation. Currently, she is a Master of Science student in the Environment and Development Master Program at Universidad Nacional de Colombia. She is a member of the research group on Conservation and Management of Wildlife.

Pedro Sánchez Palomino graduated as a Biologist (Universidad Nacional de Colombia) and obtained a Master of Science degree at PRMVS-Universidad Nacional, Heredia Costa Rica, and PhD at Universidad Nacional de Colombia. His research focuses on population ecology, statistical methods, and biological conservation. He has been a professor at Departamento de Biología of Universidad Nacional de Colombia, since 2000. He is a member of the research group on Conservation and Management of Wildlife.

Guillermo Quiroga Tapias is a Zootechnician from Universidad Nacional de Colombia. Master in Food Science and Technology from the Institute of Pharmacy and Food of the Universidad de la Havana (Cuba). Specialized in Meat Science and Technology and utilization of byproducts of the Meat Industry (Parma, Italy). Retired associate professor of the Institute of Food Science and Technology of the Universidad Nacional de Colombia. Special Professor of the Public Health Area of the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry of the Universidad Nacional de Colombia, FAO Consultant for Latin America and the Caribbean, former advisor to the General Directorate of INVIMA, member of the Chiguiro Research Group, and National Advisor to the Meat Industry.

Hernan Alonso Serrano Vasquez is a geologist from the Universidad Industrial de Santander, Master in Sustainability from the Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya Specialist in Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems. He has experience in application of geomatics to the solution of engineering projects and environmental studies at the level of environmental diagnosis of alternatives, environmental impact studies, analysis of the physical component (geology, soils) in different regions of the country. He has added to various studies of route selection for electrical interconnection projects, evaluation of the state of the páramos in Colombia, studies of areas for conservation, remote sensing applied to the evaluation of the natural environment in its different components (soil, water, and vegetation), implementation of agro-industrial and mining projects in environments of high environmental sensitivity.

Belkis Rocío Cáceres Vidal is a marketing and advertising professional with emphasis on market research. Postgraduate in Design and development of products under the Desing Thinking methodology and Lean StartUp from the Universidad Nacional de Colombia and Master’s in communication management at ESIC Business & Marketing School. She has extensive experience in implementing strategic marketing plans, digital transformation, and new product development and launch. She currently works in the marketing area for renewable energy projects in Spain.

Carlos Andrés Caceres Vidal is a publicist from Universidad Jorge Tadeo Lozano, with a specialization in Strategic Marketing Management from Universidad Piloto de Colombia. He has experience in the public sector in the press and project formulation area of the Alcaldía de Bogotá (Colombia), which allowed him to develop communication strategies aimed at bringing the public administration closer to the city’s inhabitants and visitors. In addition, in the research field, he supported the development of the “Chigüiro Project” research by carrying out activities related to market research focused on bioeconomy.

Acknowledgments

We thank the following institutions that have supported distinct aspects of research conducted since 2003: Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Ministerio de Ambiente y Desarrollo Sostenible, Corporinoquia, Universidad de los Llanos, U.S. Agency for International Development Natural Wealth Program. Pilot capybara essays had a scientific collection permit from Autoridad Nacional de Licencias Ambientales (ANLA) for non-commercial purposes.

Conflict of interest statement

The authors freely and spontaneously declare that there is no conflict of interest in the scientific or academic results as well as in the conclusions presented in the article.

References