Index

For the benefit of digital users, indexed terms that span two pages (e.g., 52–53) may, on occasion, appear on only one of those pages.

Tables, figures, and boxes are indicated by t, f, and b following the page number

Accelerated Rural Water Supply Programme, 1972614–15

access and benefit sharing (ABS)394–95
concept of395–97

access to environmental information290, 292–94

Additional Director General of Forests (Wildlife)510

Adivasi and forest dwellers500

Adivasi communities21

Afghanistan
Constitution66–67
Environment Act, 200772–73
part of SAARC72–73

agriculture and environment347–48
active protections and passive silences with environmental impacts351–58
Insecticides Act, 1968353–54
Insecticides Rules, 1971353–54
intellectual property rights (IPR) protection355–56
laws regulating fertilizers354–55
Pesticide Management Bill, 2017354
pesticides, insecticides, weedicides353
seeds355
water subsidies352–53
Draft EIA Notification, 2020357–58
EIA Notification, 2006357–58
Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980358
Indian Forests Act, 1927358
NGT’s jurisdiction357–58
silofication of laws357–58
Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972358

agriculture and technology365–66

agrobiodiversity conservation391–93
institutional framework392
laws391
PPVFRA392
promoted through ex situ or in situ means391
rule 22(6) of Biological Diversity Rules, 2004391–92
section 41 of the BDA391–92

agroecology361–62

Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 198154, 92, 97, 146, 531, 540, 674–75, 680, 788, 810
liability under184–85
objective336–37

air pollution529–30, 547
Environment Pollution (Prevention and Control) Authority (EPCA)534
four major sources547
hard regulation545–46
major sources of532
MoEFCC533–34
monitor air quality536
reform pathways546–47
regulatory institutions, capacity constraints in542–43
regulatory tools536–38
weaknesses in regulatory design540–42

air pollution control areas (APCAs)532

air quality
challenges in regulating540–46
flaws in regulatory design543–44
hard regulation545–46
judicial discourse on538–40
monitor536
reform pathways546–47
regulatory institutions, capacity constraints in542–43
weaknesses in regulatory design540–42

Air Quality Index (AQI)536

air quality regulation531

All India Kisan Sangharsh Coordination Committee112–13

alluvial system608–9

Almitra H Patel v Union of India828, 838

Andean indigenous deity (Mother Earth)273–74

Andhra Forest Act, 1957480

Andhra Pradesh, Water, Land and Trees Act, 2002598

Apex Committee for the Implementation of the Paris Agreement (AIPA)557

Appellate Tribunal for Electricity170

aquifer diversity604
hydrogeological settings605f

Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)81

Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT)697–98, 830

Autonomous District Council (ADC)
Sixth Schedule areas136

Bangladesh
Environmental Conservation Act, 199573
Environment Court Act, 200073–74
SAARC, part of73

Basel Convention737

basin management
adaptive management649
institutional arrangements and processes for646–49
periodic review648
separate institutions for648

batteries management, rules739–41

Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi- Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC)63

benefit sharing399
ABS Regulations399–400
under PPVFRA400

Bengal and Bombay Smoke Nuisances Act, 1905675, 677–78

Bengal Coal Company29–30

Bengal Private Fisheries Act, 188935–36

Bhopal disaster and environment749–50
absolute liability758–62
environmental law760
UCC plant751–53

Bhopal Gas Leak Disaster Processing of Claims Act, 1985 (BGLDA)756–57

Bhutan74–75
Forest Act, 196974–75
Forest Management Units (FMU)74–75
National Forest Policy, 197474–75

bilateral investment treaties (BITs)139–40
Article XX of GATT142
India-ASEAN investment agreement143, 147
India-Colombia BIT142, 143
India-Korea FTA143
India-Kuwait BIT148
India-Singapore FTA143
India’s guarded approach towards140–41
national treatment provision in149
non-precluded measures (NPM) provision141–42
performance requirement148

bilateralism
India’s transboundary relationships653–58, 655t

biodiversity
governance371–72
Environment Support Group (ESG)372
protecting biodiversity importance, global recognition of386
protection and conservation See biodiversity conservation

biodiversity conservation387–88
Conservation Reserve Management Committee389–90
indigenous peoples and local communities393–94
FRA393
IPLCs393
PPVFRA393
laws and policies388
objectives of416–17
Protected Areas (PA)388
Scheduled Tribes and Other Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Rights) Act, 2006 (FRA)390

Biodiversity Heritage Sites (BHS)390, 517
critical concern in519
objectives of517

Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs)
individual and community property rights and Biological Diversity Act338–39

biological diversity See biodiversity

Biological Diversity Act, 2002 (BDA)54, 92, 98, 386–87, 788, 810
aim517
Biodiversity Heritage Sites (BHS)517
individual and community property rights338–39

biological resources400–1

Biological Resources and Associated Knowledge and Benefit Sharing Regulations, 2014 (ABS Regulations)
benefit-sharing agreements399–400
guidelines on access to377

Bio-medical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 1998/2016681–82, 738–39

biosafety370–71
defined by World Health Organization412
GMO370–71
Institutional Biosafety Committee371
more prominent debates413
Principle 15 of Rio Declaration, 1992412
Review Committee on Genetic Manipulation371
SynBio412–13

biosphere reserve523

Birdlife International522

Bollgard-I and Bollgard-II373

Bombay Irrigation Act, 1879169

Bombay Natural History Society522

Bombay Smoke Nuisances Act, 1912675, 677–78

Bordoloi Sub-Committee on North-East Frontier (Assam) Tribal and Excluded Areas123–24

Brundtland Commission Report of 1987197, 198

Bt technology
introduction in India369
budgetary policies160–61

Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE)167

Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS)617
formulated drinking water standards (IS 10500)617

Business and human rights
UN guiding principles on713–14

Capital Investment Subsidy Scheme360–61

Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, 200046–47, 413
Nagoya–Kuala Lumpur Supplementary Protocol on Liability and Redress, 2010415
objective414

case law
Indian higher judiciary, national environmental legislation, role in55
National Environment Tribunal, national environmental legislation, role in55

caste-based discrimination698–701

Cauvery Water Dispute Tribunal (CWDT)632

Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI)758

Central Electricity Authority771

Central Empowered Committee (CEC)499, 512–13

Central Forensic Science Laboratory512

Central Ground Water Authority (CGWA)602–3

Central Ground Water Board (CGWB)602–3

Central Information Commission (CIC)
mandatory disclosure of documents293

Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)75–76, 533–34, 615–16, 680–81, 735–36

Central Provinces24–25, 36

Central Rural Sanitation Programme692

Centre for Transnational Corporation761–62

Chhotanagpur and Santhal Pargana Tenancy Act, 1908134

Chief Executive Member (CEM)124

Chipko Movement105

Chotanagpur Tenancy Act, 190821, 31

Cigarette and other Tobacco Products Act, 2003792

City Sanitation Plan (CSP)698–701

civil law432

civil liability181–83
Companies Act, 2013, recognized under182–83
Environmental Relief Fund (ERF)181–82
Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991 (PLIA)181–82

Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act, 2010183

Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)775
credits earned under776–77
crucial for developing nations776–77
emission-reduction projects776–77

Clean Energy Cess Rules562

Clean Water Act, 1972 (United States)611–12

climate change549–50
adaptation584
emerging trigger640–41
environmental disasters, challenges in coordinating584–86
National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC)579
policy579–80
State Action Plans on Climate Change (SAPCC)579–80
statutes and case law, in561–64

climate law
framework laws566
future directions for564–67
prospects for560–67
South Korean Framework Act, 2010566–67

climate policies551, 579–80
states in climate policymaking557–58

Coal Mines (Special Provisions) Act, 2015
enacted135

Coal Mines (Conservation and Development) Act, 1974718

coal mining29
Chief Inspector and officers appointment32
definition32
legislation for mining labour31

Coast Conservation and Coastal Resource Management Act, 201479

Coastal Aquaculture Authority Act, 2005446

coastal regulation580

Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) Notification, 2019213–14, 446, 532–33
CRZ-IA448
CRZ-IB448
CRZ-II448–49
CRZ-III449
definition of447
enforcement of452
obtaining clearance451
permissible activities in449
regulatory scheme447–50
sub-classification448
water area of449–50

Coastal Zone Management Authority (CZMA)451

Coastal Zone Management Plan (CZMP)451–52

coastlines580

Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973180, 512

colonial law and development104–8
Chipko Movement105

colonial laws676–78

colonial rule137

Commission for Air Quality for the National Capital Region and Adjoining Areas Act, 2021 (CAQM Act)531

Commission for Air Quality Management674–75

Committee for Survival and Dignity (CSD)130–31

Common Biomedical Waste Treatment and Facilities (CBMWTFs)734

common but differentiated responsibility (CBDR)550

common law liability179–80

common property regime173

common property resources (CPRs)332

community171–72
action for environmental172
action in practice173–74
common property regime173

community forest resource (CFR) rights494, 504

Community Led Total Sanitation (CLTS)692

community reserves and conservation reserves511

community wildlife management523

Companies Act, 2013
section 135168–69

Compensatory Afforestation Fund (CAF), 2016163, 190–91, 213, 504–5, 562
Supreme Court213

Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA)190–91, 474
monitoring committee by Court190–91
Supreme Court213

Comprehensive Environmental Pollution Index (CEPI)224

Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) of India99, 725

conservation211

conservation reserve511

Constitution (Forty-Second) Amendment Act, 197665, 91

Constitution of Bangladesh
Article 18A67–68

Constitution of Bhutan67
public trust doctrine249

Constitution of India
Article 14202
Article 47678–79
Article 24690
Article 25389–90, 91
Directive Principles of State Policy in the Constitution679–80
domestic legislation54
Entry 56 of List I (Union List)28–29
environmental protection50–53
Article 4753
Articles 48-A and 51A[g], Constitutional Amendment of 1976 introduced by336
Article 51(c)51
Article 7352
Articles 243G and 243W332
Article 244, read with Schedules V and VI331–32
Article 24651–52
Article 25351–52
Article 48A53
international treaties51
federal issues92–93
Fifth and Sixth Schedule areas, environmental governance in121–22
Forty-Second Amendment65–66
Forty-Second Constitutional Amendment93
Hans Kelsen’s ‘Pure Theory of Law’51
insertion of environmental duties in336
Irish Constitution, inspired by65
rules54–55

Constitution of Nepal
Article 12(1)71
Article 3068
Article 5169
environmental constitutionalism, adoption of70

Constitution of Sri Lanka66

Constitution of the Maldives66–67

Construction and Demolition Waste Management Rules, 2016532–33

Consumer Protection Act, 1986380–81

contaminated water762–63
Greenpeace released a report762
US court decision762–63

Continuous Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Stations (CAAQMS)536

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)8, 46–47, 385–86

Conference of Parties (CoP)416

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, 1973 (CITES)48–49, 512

Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution, 1979 (LRTAP Convention)48–49

conventional environmental protection274

corporate environmental duties260–61, 265–67

cotton, genetically modified (GM) crop365–66

Cotton Seeds Price (Control) Order, 2015 (CSP)375–76

criminal liability180–81
Indian Penal Code, 1860 (IPC)180

critical tiger habitat (CTH)511–12

critical wildlife habitat (CWH)518

critically vulnerable coastal areas (CVCAs)450

customary law435
legal pluralism in India’s fisheries436–38

Customs Act, 1962736

definitions
biological resources400–1
Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) Notification, 2019447
forest rights493
gram sabha492
small-scale fisher438–39
transboundary movement414
transfer414
value-added product400–1
village492

Deopahar Reserve forest area520

Department of Environment
administrative level681–82

Disaster Management Act, 2005562, 571, 582–83

disaster management law
environmental rights578–79
institutions572t
National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA)572
policies573t
relief-centric disaster management584
specific disasters, relating to573–78
droughts575
floodplain regulation574
floods573–74

Disputes Resolution Committee632

District Level Committee (DLC)371, 497

Draft EIA Notification, 2020357–58

Draft Environment (Siting for Industrial Projects) Rules, 1999514

Draft National Forest Policy, 2018 (Draft NFP)212

Drought Management Manual (Drought Manual)575, 576

Drugs and Cosmetics Rules, 1988418–19

due process305–6
constitutional safeguard under Article 21, expansive judicial interpretation product of307
environmental law306
environmental law context308–9
environmental law-making, and implementation309–10
evolution of environmental law307
procedural305–6
procedural and substantive308
salient framing principle322–23
strengthening requirements319–21
available avenues319–21
substantive, and implementation310–11

due process deficit313–19
addressing321–22
dependence on judiciary321
regulatory failure to enforce environmental laws321
scrutinizing procedural innovations322

duties334
restraint and cooperation335

Earth jurisprudence272–73

Easements Act, 1882333, 599

East Coast Road (ECR) expansion454–55

East India Company
delegitimized community land tenure331

ecologically sustainable agriculture
agroecology361–62
climate change359–60
food sovereignty, concept by LVC362
Karnataka Rajya Raitha Sangha (KRRS)360
movements and organizations, for362
NMSA359
organic farming360–61
promoting efforts359–62
Rainfed Area Development Programme359–60
zero budget natural farming (ZBNF)360

economic instruments175

economy
government, market and communities175

EIA Notification, 2006134–35

Election Commission of India99

Electricity Act, 2003170, 561–62

Electricity (Supply) Act, 1948769

Electricity Regulation Act, 2006170

Electricity Regulatory Commission Act, 1998770

Elephant Preservation Act, 1873509

elephant reserves and corridors519

energy and sustainability767–68
electrifying India769
Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle (FCEV) technology772
Indian judiciary768
long-term concern775
regulatory landscape governing768–70
Sharm El-Sheikh Implementation Plan775–76
Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 7769

Energy Conservation Act, 2001561–62

Energy Conservation (Amendment) Bill, 2022563

environmental law
industrial disasters and763–64

environment
climate change and sea-level rise, problems posed by453–57
defined by Environment (Protection) Act, 1986336
defined824
invocation825
market and168–71
meta-narrative824
trope825

Environment (Protection) Act, 198654, 75, 92–93, 96–97, 178–79, 222, 335–36, 388, 445–46, 513, 732–33, 788, 808, 810
ambitious681–82
EIA, led to764
labelling of products294–95
liability under185–86
objective336–37
rule 5289
section 3(3)562–63, 602–3

environment and health
right to life682–86

Environment Impact Assessment Notification, 2006 (EIA Notification)223, 718, 764

Environment Relief Fund (ERF)791

Environment (Protection) Rules, 1986 (EP Rules)183, 291–92, 532–33

Environmental Action Programme617–18

environmental and natural resources law2, 4
growth2–3
rapid development4–5

environmental aspects of quarrying of minor minerals
MoEFCC Report on719

environmental clearance (EC)808

environmental courts or tribunals (ECTs)805–6
global proliferation806
Indian806–7

environmental disasters569–70
environmental disasters, challenges in coordinating584–86
exacerbated by legislation586
international law and policy586
laws and policies586
pre-disaster preparedness585
reaction from various people585
law and policy571–80

environmental duties253–54
constitutional sources256–59
Article 51A(g) of the Constitution257–58
directive principles of state policy256–57
fundamental duties257
fundamental rights258–59
Forty-second Constitutional Amendment254–55
function255
Indian enviro-legal landscape254–55
limitation and potential261–67
non-humans, to263–65
prevent, protect, and provide261–63
precautionary principle262
Principle 15 of Rio Declaration262
public trust doctrine262–63
statutory sources
corporate duties260–61
procedural duties259–60

environmental expenditures/investments162–63

environmental governance125–26
Fifth and Sixth Schedule areas135–36
nature and type of137
post-independent India in126–28

environmental harm178–79

Environmental Hygiene Committee of 1949614–15

environmental impact assessment (EIA)76–77, 246

Environmental Impact Assessment Notification, 2006 (EIA Notification)75, 204–5, 292
process230–31

environmental information
access to290, 292–94
major issues294
collection of290–92
Environment (Protection) Rules, 1986291–92
major pollution control laws291
dissemination of294–95
labelling of products294–95
information collection290–92

environmental justice and structural barriers115–16, 207, 336
rights recognition338
environment and tax policies of government161–62

environmental law327–28
agriculture and environment348–49
individual and community property rights and obligations under335–39
procedures in313t
rights recognition338

environmental law-making
due process and implementation309–10

environmental movements (EMs)101–2
defined by Guha and Gadgil101–2
farmers’ protests, 2015112–13
Narmada Bachao Andolan (NBA)106
Navdanya and farmers’ movements110
role of law in102–3

environmental PIL
actual workings828
policy outcomes and practice838
environmental policy instruments166–68

environmental policy with budgetary policies in India
integrating164–66

Environmental Pollution Control Ordinance, 197773

environmental problems
infrastructure and development projects133
scheduled areas135

environmental protection
Constitution of India50–53
Maldives76–77
Stockholm Conference, Indira Gandhi, in50
Stockholm Declaration270

Environmental Protection Standards for Nitrogen Fertiliser Plants, 1989354–55

environmental provisions
expropriation146
general exception clauses152–54
Article 22.1153
Article 32.1152–53
part of investor obligations as155
Article 12 of 2016 Model BIT155
part of ISDS155–56
Article 26.3155
part of specific exceptions, as145–49
residual category149–52
health, safety, and environmental149
non-lowering of environmental standards151
preamble150
specific exceptions
Article 5.5154

environmental quality

Action Plans224

precautionary principle219

standards222–23

thresholds of acceptable222

Environmental Relief Fund (ERF)181–82
environmental taxes161
first-best instruments of taxation161–62

Epidemic Diseases Act, 1897674–75

epidemics and pandemics674

E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2016681–82, 741–43, 788

Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)434, 438

Executive Committee on Climate Change (ECCC)557

Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR)229, 738

Factories Act, 1948755

Faecal Sludge and Septage Management (FSSM)693

Farm Science Centres (KVKs)356–57

Federal Water Pollution Control Act, 1948611–12

Fifth and Sixth Schedule areas
environmental governance135–36
Government of India Act, 1935123–24

Fifth Schedule areas123–24
Forest Rights Act, implementation of131–32
key provisions124

Finance Commissions162–63

fishing law429–30
history430–38
legal pluralism436–38
scale and types of legal matters associated with, difference in434t

food sovereignty362

Forest Act, 196974–75

Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 (FCA)97–98, 446, 468, 788, 810
modification introduced by Supreme Court468–69
outcomes assessment477–83

Forest Advisory Committee468

forest conservation465–66
complexities and regional variations469–74
effectiveness assessment477–78
compensation for diversion482
conservation/diversion process482
criteria, conservation/diversion481
decentralization480
democratic accountability and transparency480–81
federalism482–83
legally mandated substantive goals, absence of479–80
role of Supreme Court483
state ownership and control478
illegal deforestation468
legal framework467
gaps and shifts474–76
assessing outcomesC24S5

Forest Conservation Act, 1980 (FCA)336–37, 488, 499
amendments, deficit in substantive due process317–19
forest land492

Forest Management Units (FMU) programme74–75

forest rights493
community forest resource (CFR) rights494
core commitment to conservation495–96
customary habitat of particularly vulnerable tribal groups, to494
developmental rights494
evidence497
forest villages, to494
grazing494
land being occupied or cultivated493
mechanism, procedural innovation496–98
minor forest produce (MFP)493–94

Forest Rights Act (FRA)488, 489–91
colonial roots489
core principles and definitions491–92
Gram Sabha497
implementation in Fifth Schedule areas131–32
land acquisition and501–2
legal challenges502–3
legislative amendments504–5
right to community forest resources504
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, and501
substantive shift in491–96
Section 4(1)492

Forest Rights Committee (FRC)497

Forest Villages494
creation of479

Forward Contract (Regulation) Act, 1952 (FCRA)780

fundamental environment duties257

Funding of Treatment Storage and Disposal Facilities (TSDFs)734

Ganga Action Plan (GAP), 1985617

Garo Hills District (Forest) Act, 1958131

Garo Hills (Jhum) Regulation, 1954131

gene revolution367–70
Bt technology369
cotton and national seed market375
domestic laws and policies370–81
biosafety370–72
high production costs of HYVs368–69
hybrid varieties368
monocropping368
seed saving restriction373

Genetic Engineering Approval/ Appraisal Committee (GEAC)371

genetically modified (GM)365–66

glacial lake outburst floods (GLOF)661

Global Environment Monitoring System (GEMS), 1977617

Goa Groundwater Regulation Act, 2004598

Godavari Water Dispute Tribunal (GWDT)634–35

Goods and Services Tax (GST)165

Government of India Act, 193590, 123–24

Gram Sabha125–26, 131–33, 136–37, 208, 209, 493, 494, 495, 496–98, 499, 500, 501, 504–5
definition492
under Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006 (FRA)204, 213

Great Indian Bustard (GIB) Arc521–22

Green Revolution349
features366
HYV seeds349–50
national food security350
productivist shift in agricultural law349–50

groundwater591–92
access to agriculture599–600
aquifer diversity604
arable land in India600–1
BIS formulated drinking water standards (IS 10500)617
contamination604–6
crises of extraction603–4
deteriorating water quality605–6
development and regulation of616–17
emerging concerns and limitations of existing legal regime598–606
haphazard and rampant extraction592
legal regime on592
legal status of599
legislation594
major source of drinking water616–17
markets601
NWP and594–96
salient features591–92
standards for measuring water quality617
Swachh Bharat Abhiyan/Clean India Mission606

Groundwater Resources (Management, Control, and Regulation) Act, 2005598

Hazardous and Other Wastes (Management and Transboundary Movement) Rules, 201675, 788

hazardous waste
Article 1 of Basel Convention732–33
Indian legal framework733–34
history731
industrialization, and732
PCB’s role733–34
rules735

Hazardous Waste Management (HWM) Rules
rule 3(17)732–33

Hazardous Waste (Management, Handling and Transboundary Movement) Rules, 2008681–82, 734, 735–36

high-yielding varieties (HYV)349–50

Hoda Committee Report714

illegal mining723–25

illegal, unregulated, and unreported (IUU)
fishing activities427–28

Imperial Forest Department24

important bird areas (IBA) programme522

India-ASEAN investment agreement147

India-Korea FTA
Annex 10A.3(b)147
Article 10.16(2)151

India-Japan FTA147–48

Indian Bureau of Mines (IBM)719

Indian Companies Act, 2013565–66
Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR)356–57
Indian Easements Act, 188228–29, 614

Indian enviro-legal landscape253
constitutional sources256–59
corporate duties260–61
environmental duties254–55
fundamental duties257
fundamental rights258–59
procedural duties259–60

Indian environmental law
indeterminacy and199–203

Indian Fisheries Act35, 36–37, 428
private waters36–37

Indian Forest Act (IFA), 192722, 26, 97–98, 432–33, 467, 788
complexities and regional variations469–74
illegal deforestation468
liability under189–90

Indian Mines Act, 190131–32
amendments to33
defectiveness32–33
Khost Coal Mine, fire in32
Kolar Goldfields, disaster in32
protective labour legislation31–32

Indian National Seed Corporation379–80

Indian Penal Code, 1860 (IPC)180

India’s climate institutions554
coordination institutions559b
evolution555
four phases555, 556f
functional attributes558–60
strategy-setting institutions560b

India’s transboundary relationships655t
bilateralism653–58
development and environmental interests, aligning660–61
existing regimes, potential of667–69
existing transboundary water regime653–61
regional context658–60
South Asian neighbouring countries, with652

indigenous culture
biodiversity conservation and393–94

indigenous peoples and local communities (IPLCs)
ABS, and394–403
biodiversity and393–94
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), report about487–88
issues400–3
Nagoya Protocol398

individual and community property rights
Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs)338–39
Biological Diversity Act, 2002338–39
degradation and disappearance, resources of341–42
denial and destruction of342–44
FRA, under343
NGT Act, under342
stiff resistance343–44
WLPA, under343
rights recognition338

individual property rights331–32

Indus Water Treaty (IWT/Treaty)662
dispute resolution, accommodated for663–64
disputes under662
Baglihar dispute663
Kishenganga dispute663

industrial disasters
Bhopal case751, 759, 760–61, 763
Hazardous Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules, 1989763
normative evolution764
Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991 (PLIA)763
Shriram case759, 763

industrial policy715

industrial pollution683–84

Insecticides Act, 1968353–54

Insecticides Rules, 1971353–54

Inspection Panel113–14

Institute of International Law (IIL)47–48

institutional overlaps726–27

Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM)458–61
achievements and concerns459–60
phase I, implementation458–59
phase II, implementation460

intellectual property rights (IPR) protection355–56

intergenerational equity723
International Convention for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants (UPOV)396–97

International Council of Mining and Metals (ICMM)714

international environmental law-making41, 57–58
Article 253 of the Constitution57–58
Environment (Protection) Act, 198657–58
multilateral environmental agreements42
protocols42
soft instruments/hard law43
tools and techniques44–46
traditional modes43
UNFCCC41

International Labour Organization (ILO)737–38
Convention No. 169713
International Law Association (ILA)47–48

International Law Commission40

International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA)386

International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN)47–48

Inter-State River Water Disputes Act, 1956 (IRWD Act)106, 632, 633–34

inter-state water disputes
emerging infrastructure interventions, and640

inter-state water sharing
alternative principles for644
basin management
adaptive management649
institutional arrangements and processes for646–49
periodic review648
separate institutions for648
beyond techno-legal discourse637–38
changing contexts of637–41
federalism vs centralization638–40
Mahanadi River Basin
conflict in643
government efforts to resolve issue643
total water availability and use in642t
water availability and use641

Irrigation Cess Act27–28

Jal Jeevan Mission606

Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM)692, 830

jhum131

joint forest management523

joint forest management programmes (JFM)473

Joint Protected Area Management523

Justice Lokur Committee539

Karnataka Forest Act, 1963471–72, 480

Karnataka Ground Water (Regulation and Control of Development and Management) Act, 2011598

Karnataka Rajya Raitha Sangha (KRRS)360

Kaziranga Reserve Forest24

Kerala Groundwater (Control and Regulation) Act, 2002598

Kerala State Coastal Zone Management Authority (KSCZMA)456

Krishna Water Dispute Tribunal I (KWDT- I)634

La Via Campesina (LVC)360

land327–28
individual and community rights and obligations331–35

Land Acquisition Act, 1894125
environmental governance in post-Independence India126
Law Commission of India
186th Report808

liability
Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981184–85
civil181–83
common law179–80
criminal180–81
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986185–86
environmental statutes183–87
forest laws189–90
imposition of178
National Green Tribunal Act, 2010186–87
natural resources statutes187–90
Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974184
wildlife laws187

living-modified organisms (LMOs)413

Madras Irrigation and Cess Act, 186527–28

Mahanadi River Basin
conflict in643
government efforts to resolve issue643
total water availability and use642t
water availability and use641

Maharashtra Animal Preservation Act, 1957310

Maharashtra Groundwater (Regulation for Drinking Water Purposes) Act, 1993596, 598

Maharashtra Hybrid Seed Company (MAHYCO)398

Maharashtra Prevention of Water Pollution Act, 1969598, 615

Maharashtra State Maritime Board (MMB) Act, 1996435

Maharashtra Water Resources Regulatory Authority Act, 2005 (MWRRA)
institutions/organizations dealing with602–4
water markets601

Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA), 2005133–34, 577, 692

Mahyco Monsanto Biotech (MMB)373

Major Ports Trusts Act, 1963736

Maldives
environmental protection76–77
National Environment Action Plan (NEAP)77
Protection and Preservation of the Environment (Law No 4/93)76–77

Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme523

Management and Control of Forests Act, 1958131

Manufacture, Storage and Import of Hazardous Chemicals Rules, 1989755

Marine Fisheries Regulation Acts438

marine fishing427–28
marginalization of ‘primitive and backward’ fishermen438

Maritime Zones of India (Regulation of Fishing by Foreign Vessels) Act, 1981446

mass eviction130–31

Mineral Concession Rules, 1960 (MCR)717

Mineral Conservation and Development Rules, 1988 (MCDR)717, 718

Mineral Laws (Amendment) Act, 2020135

mineral resources and sustainability721–22

Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957 (MMDRA)209, 717

mining and environment, regulatory framework713–21
constitutional aspects715–17
environment719–21
statutory717–19

Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare603

Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF)417, 809
en masse order of eviction by490

Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC)75–76, 446, 732–33
collection of environmental information291–92
environmental information, access to290

Ministry of Jal Shakti602–3, 639–40, 661

Ministry of Tribal Affairs (MoTA)524

Ministry of Urban Development
key duty831

MOD VAT (modified value-added tax)164

Model Bill to Regulate and Control the Development and Management of Ground Water 1970596–97

Model Groundwater Bill, 2016/2017169, 596–97
potential of608
salient features597

Monitoring of Indian Aquatic Resources (MINARS), 1984617

Monopolies and Restrictive Trade Practices Commission (MRTPC)375

Monsanto373
Nuziveedu Seeds Ltd (NSL), conflict with376

Motor Vehicles Rules, 1989533

Municipal Solid Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules, 2000828–29

Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization, 20108, 46–47, 395

Narmada Bachao Andolan (NBA)106

Narmada Water Disputes Tribunal (NWDT)106, 107, 634–35

National Academy of Agricultural Sciences360

National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC), 2008551

National Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Programme (NAMP)536

National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) 2009222–23, 536

National Biodiversity Authority (NBA)371

National Board for Wildlife (NBWL)510

National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR)392

National Capital Region and Adjoining Areas Act, 2021674–75

National Centre for Organic and Natural Farming360–61

National Centre for Sustainable Coastal Management (NCSCM)451

National Clean Air Programme 2019 (NCAP)533–34

National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB)792
data from792

National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA)572

National Disaster Management Plan8

National Elephant Conservation Authority519–20

National Environment Commission74–75

National Environment Policy, 2006618, 715

National Environment Protection Act, 200774–75

National Environment Tribunal (NET) Act, 1995807–8

National Environmental Act, 198079

National Environmental Appellate Authority (NEAA) Act, 1997807–8

National Environmental Engineering Research Institute793

National Environmental Management Plan, 199573

National Environmental Policy, 199273

Natioanl Environmental Policy, 2006
critics212

National Forest Policy, 1988 (NFP)74–75, 472, 715
new draft163
sustainable development211

National Green Tribunal (NGT) Act, 201054, 75, 92, 98, 563
liability under186–87
sections 19(2) and 25812–13
section 29835
section 15(1)186

National Green Tribunal of India (NGT)94, 732–33, 794, 806–7
adjudicative process810–11
anthropocentric approach795
challenges815
compensation794
delegation795–96
development807
ecology/biodiversity795
environmental compensation under791
environmental jurisprudence811–12
establishment809
independent assessment820–21
institutionalization and transformation814
internal working practices820
legislative support807–8
NGT Bill, 2009809
object81–82
procedural expansion813–14
procedures and powers812
scientific experts811
self- declared expansion of powers816–17
suo motu jurisdiction81
suo motu power817
Supreme Court, role of796
working practices810–14

National Heritage and Wilderness Areas Act 198879

National Mineral Policy108, 714–15

National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA)359–60

National Parks and Sanctuaries518

National Planning Committee, 1938678

National Policy on Faecal Sludge and Septage Management, 2017693

National Policy on Synthetic Biology (Draft)417–18

National Register of Seeds380

National River Conservation Commission Act 201380–81

National River Conservation Plan (NRCP), 1995617

National Rural Drinking Water Supply Programme, 1969614–15

National Tiger Conservation Authority509–10, 511–12

National Urban Sanitation Policy (NUSP)692

National Water Policy (NWP)575, 594–95
drawbacks595–96
groundwater and594–96
purpose of594–95

National Water Resources Council594–95

National Water Supply and Sanitation Program614–15

National Wildlife Action Plans508

National Working Plan Code, 2014479–80

Navdanya movement110–12
Nepal

Environmental Protection Act, 201977–78

Net Present Value (NPV)469

New Economic Policy, 1991121–22, 133

New Policy on Seed Development379–80

new treaty-making48–49
CITES48–49
ECE48–49
LRTAP Convention48–49

Nirmal Bharat Abhiyan692

Nirmal Gram Puraskar692

Niti Aayog’s (Policy Commission of India) Agricultural Vision350

non-legal soft law43–44

non-precluded measures (NPM)141–42

Northern India Canal and Drainage Act27–28

Odisha/Orissa River Pollution Prevention Act, 1953598, 615

Oil and Natural Gas Commission or ONGC33

Oilfields (Regulation and Development) Act, 194834

Oleum Gas Leak case793, 794, 796–97

Open Defecation Free (ODF)692

oraons334

organic farming360–61

Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)3–4, 220

Pakistan

Environmental Protection Act, 199778

Panchayats (Extension to Scheduled Areas) Act, 1996125–26, 332, 512

Pani Panchayat601–2

Paris Agreement, 2015
Article 6775
Common but Differentiated Responsibilities principle774–75
Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs)774–75

Parliamentary Standing Committee91

partially excluded areas123–24

penalties and compensation785–86
blurred boundaries between796–801
environmental compensation charges
NGT and, illegal action797–99
Pollution Control Boards799–801
rationale786
statutory and judicial expressions786–91
judicial and legislative routes789–91
penal provisions across Indian environmental statutes788–89
theoretical conception786–87
use, critical analysis791–96
inconsistent methodology793–96
weak, lengthy trials, and792–93

People’s Biodiversity Register (PBR)391–92

People’s Charioteer Organization (PCO)283–84

Perform, Achieve, Trade (PAT) scheme167

permissible objectives142

Pesticide Management Bill, 2017354

Petroleum Act, 193434

Petroleum and Minerals Pipeline Act, 196234

Petroleum and Natural Gas
acts and provinces33–35

Petroleum and Natural Gas Rules, 195934

plant variety protection in India376–79
PepsiCo Case and problems with PVP system378–79
PPVFR Authority of India377

plastic waste management rules743–44

Plastic Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2011837

Pollution Control Boards (PCBs)222, 357–58, 542, 733–34
environmental compensation charges, and799–801
graded response action plan800–1
guidelines800
high number of vacancies543
methodology developed by800
problematic composition542
quality of leadership542–43

pollution control committees (PCCs)533–34

Pollution Under Control (PUC) certification533

Porahat settlement26–27

post-independence environmental law678–82

Prime Minister’s Council on Climate Change (PMCCC)555

Private Fisheries’ Protection Act, 189936–37

Private Forests Act, 194524–25

private property rights in land340–41
land ownership340–41
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes340
status of women on341
total loss of341

procedural due process
consent requirement and the deficit in315–17
example of judicial review312–13
mapping procedures in environmental laws312–13

procedural environment duties259–60

procedural environmental rights (PERs)287–88
access to justice300–3
early pollution control laws300–1
NGT301
public interest litigation (PIL)302–3
violations301–2
evolution288–89
global recognition288
public participation, environmental decision-making in295

prohibition of employment as manual scavengers693

property327–28

property rights in India
colonial anthropocentric ideology330
colonial rule impact on330–31
conceptual approach to329–31
ownership’ rights329–30

property rights in land
duties of individuals and communities associated with333
individual and community rights and obligations331–35

protected areas (PA)388
classification of areas outside, governance objectives of389

Protected Forests (PFs)467

Protection of Plant Variety and Farmers Rights Act, 2001 (PPVFRA)366–67, 392, 418–19

public interest litigation (PIL)825
development of Indian environmental jurisprudence, role in302–3
environmental827
Indian context302
jurisprudence and judicial activism303
PERs, access to justice302–3
procedural originality and doctrinal license827
process, social solution833–35
state inaction835–37

Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991 (PLIA)181–82, 763, 789, 810
relief under791

public nuisance180

public participation
environmental decision-making, in
Environment (Protection) Rules297
obligation to provide information296–97
PERs295
stage and mode of297–99
stages and levels296
Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972298–99

public trust doctrine235
application of241–47
constitutional aspects242
normative content248
as public easementary right242–43
Article 48-A and Article 51-A of Constitution244
concept interlinked with environmental principles251
constitutional aspects applications242
Article 21 of Indian Constitution242
primary contention in appeal242
effectiveness of parens patriae281–82
explained by Supreme Court244
history and evolution of237–41
civil law origins237–38
common law developments238–40
India, historical origins240–41
within Indian jurisprudence, in applying243
interfaces with other environmental principles250
limitations to evolution250
natural resources, classification236
natural resources protected under246–47
normative content248
ambiguity248
challenge249
future development249
private trust approach to249–50
protection of ecology and246
as public easementary right242–43
restrictions on governmental authority243

Pure Theory of Law51

PVC Plastic Waste Dealers Association836

quantity instruments160

quantity restrictions160

Ramsar Sites (Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, 1971)516–17

Rashtriya Bargh Ayog (RBA)573–74

rDNA Advisory Committee371

Real Estate (Regulation and Development) Act, 2016565–66

regulation123

regulation and restriction of activities223–25
additional safeguards223–24
consent to establish and consent to operate223
critically polluted areas224
precautionary and prevention principles223

regulation of access to biological resources397–98

Renewable Purchase Obligations561–62

reserved forests (RFs)467

responsibility and liability
principles in allocation226–29
acceptance of232
dispersed actors229
industrial units226–27
state authorities228
uneven application230

Review Committee on Genetic Manipulation371

Right to Fair Compensation and Transparency in Land Acquisition, Rehabilitation and Resettlement Act, 2013 (LARR)108, 133–34, 501
amendment134
enactment134–35

Rights of Mother Earth272

rights of nature
anatomy and its manifestation in Indian jurisprudence275–78
Cormac Cullinan273
court decisions on279t
empowering tribal and local communities284
evolution of Indian jurisprudence275–76
holder of rights as274
protection by conferring legal rights278–83
conventional environmental law problem280–81
effectiveness of parens patriae281–82
implementation281
utility of recognition of, Livingstone question282–83
recognition of274
sustainable development278–79

rights of nature articulation271–75

Rio de Janeiro98

Rio Declaration45–46

Rio Earth Summit46–47

riparian rights28

River Basin Management Bill, 2018 (draft RBM Bill)633

River Basin Master Plan633

River Basin Organizations (RBOs)633

River Pollution Prevention Act, 1876611–12

SAARC Committee on Environment64

SAARC Disaster Management Centre64

SAARC Energy Centre64

SACEP Environmental and Natural Resources Information Centre (SENRIC)667–68

sanitation689–90
access to toilets, and701–3
beyond toilets696–98
caste-based discrimination698–701
emerging challenges701–6
governance and financing priorities704–6
legal and policy regimes691
linkages with, environment690
manual scavenging698–701
neglected dimensions704
policy in India, evolving691–94
challenges associated with694–701
national programmes692
rural coverage692–93
UN General Assembly Resolution691
rights-bearing citizens703
safety, politics and Inequalities694–95

Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes
private property rights in land340

Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006 (FRA)22, 92, 97–98, 108, 130–31, 204, 488, 501
principle of public participation298

Scheduled Tribes (Recognition of Forest Rights) Bill, 2005502

Seeds Bill356–57, 379–81
New Policy on Seed Development379–80

Sendai Framework on Disaster Risk Reduction, 20158

Seventy-Forth Constitution Amendment Act of 1992826

Shore Nuisance (Bombay- Kolaba) Act, 1853614

shore-seine/Rampan, periya valai429–30

Shriram Foods and Fertilizers759

Sixth Schedule areas123–24
Autonomous District Council (ADC), positive features of136
merit in provisions136–37
tribal communities in131

Sixth Schedule of the Constitution124
Executive Committee of District Council124
rich in natural resources122

Smart Cities Mission830

Smoke Nuisances Commissions677–78

social development207

Societies Registration Act, 1860836

Society of Integrated Coastal Management (SICOM)458

soft instrument43

solid waste management826
BL Wadhera v Union of India827
Supreme Court cases826t
proactive judicial intervention832–38

Solid Waste Management (SWM) Rules, 201675, 532–33, 830–31

South Asia Cooperative Environment Programme (SACEP)660

South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC)62, 63, 660
Committee on the Environment, implemented64
countries, environmental legislative frameworks72–79
Afghanistan72–73
Bangladesh73–74
Bhutan74–75
India75–76
Maldives76–77
Nepal77–78
Pakistan78
Sri Lanka79
cross-fertilization in65–69
economic development, primarily focused on64
future challenges for environmental law in80–82
larger countries63
same ecosystems71
shared constitutional mechanisms, importance of69–71

South Korean Framework Act on Low Carbon, 2010566–67

sovereignty and autonomy
reclaiming communal110–13

Special Purpose Vehicle830

Sri Lanka79
National Environmental Act, 198079

State Action Plans on Climate Change (SAPCCs)551–52, 557–58
climate change policy579–80

State Biosafety Coordination Committees (SBCCs)420–21

State Biotechnology Coordination Committee (SBCC)371

State Board for Wildlife511

state electricity boards170

state electricity boards (SEBs)171

state fishing laws432–35

State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs)533–34, 615–16, 735–36, 788
high number of vacancies543
problematic composition542
quality of leadership542–43

Statute of the International Court of Justice
Article 38(1)40

Stockholm Conference, 1972733
decisions taken89–90
India’s participation in50

Stockholm Declaration 19725
environmental protection270

Sub-Divisional Level Committee (SDLC)497

substantive due process310–11
deficit in317–19
inability of courts to examine legislative procedure311

Sundarbans
coastal planning and regulation581
cyclones and sea-level rise in581–84

Sundarbans Affairs Department (SAD)583–84

Supreme Court
absolute liability principle220
alienate natural resources, state’s power to208
Compensatory Afforestation Fund Act, 2016 (CAFA)213
Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA)213
evolved rich environmental jurisprudence198
intervention, triggered by extraordinary scale of illegalities203–4
principles, environmental jurisprudence on94–96

sustainable development
conservation211
policy and legislation in211–14
principle of200
rights of nature278–79

Sustainable Development Framework (SDF)714

Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)6

Sustainable Development Principle1

Swachh Bharat Abhiyan/Clean India Mission606

Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM)690–91, 830

synthetic biology (SynBio)407–8, 422–23
BioBricks’ concerns411–12
bioethicists’ concerns410
biosafety concerns in408
biosafety for412–13
criticized for410
definition by416
developments in420–21
genome editing in GMOs409
monopolization of life forms, argument for410–11
policy considerations409–12
Task Force of the Twelfth Planning Commission Report422

Targeted Public Distribution System (TPDS)360–61

Te Awa Tupua (Whanganui) Settlement Act, 2017282–83

Territorial Waters, Continental Shelf, Exclusive Economic Zone, and other Maritime Zones Act, 1976445

Total Sanitation Campaign (TSC)692

Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS)355–56, 366–67
Article 27.3(b) of TRIPS Agreement372–73

transboundary environmental risks
contemporary context661–67
international transboundary spaces662–65
Kosi Barrage project664
water quality665–66

Transfer of Property Act, 1882599

tribal and local communities
rights of nature, empowering284

tribes
control over forests128–29
laws, adverse effect on130
Sixth Schedule131

Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY)533

UN Conference on Environment and Development, 199240, 808

UN Conference on the Human Environment, 1972808

UN Economic Commission for Europe (ECE)48–49

UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)41, 550
common concern of mankind45

Copenhagen Conference of Parties, 2009551
important outcomes of776
Kyoto Protocol, 199746–47

Paris Agreement, 201546–47
Sharm El-Sheikh Implementation Plan (COP27)775–76

UN General Assembly, UNEP47–48

unclassed forests470

undergraduate law degree (LLB)3

unending frontier22–23

UNEP’s Montevideo Programme45

uniform pollution tax166
export taxes on166

Union Carbide Corporation (UCC)751
corporate liability761
Dow Chemical took over758
majority shareholder760
multinational firms760
notion of piercing the corporate veil760
question of extraterritoriality760–61
United Nations Environment Program (UNEP)41–42

value added tax (VAT)164–65

value-added product400–1

vehicular pollution684

Vessel Monitoring System (VMS)432–33

Vienna Convention on Law of Treaties40
Article 31(2)150

Village Forests (VFs)467

Vimal Bhai v Union of India808

volcanic and crystalline systems609

waste-to-energy plant685–86

wastelands341–42

water
biophysical characteristics647
bureaucratic river basin organizations647–48
nested institutions at different scales648

Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 (Water Act)6, 90–91, 97, 533–34, 615–16, 788, 810
objective336–37
Cess Act, 1977810
liability under184
Water Pollution Act680–81, 788

water governance606–7
alluvial system608–9
first comprehensive national-level618
Himalayan mountain system608
legal and institutional mechanisms around647
meaning and relevance of608
sedimentary systems (hard and soft)609
volcanic and crystalline systems609

water law1

water legislation594
water pollution regulation
ambiguous and conflicting goals620–21
challenges for618–24
conflicting jurisdictions623
emerging regulatory and legal landscape625–28
hybrid regulatory governance625–27
judicial and legal developments627–28
lack of public participation621–23
procedural inefficiency621–23
shifting goals and inadequate response624
weak institutions619–20

water quality613–14
ambiguous and conflicting goals620–21
challenges for618–24
conflicting jurisdictions623
lack of coordination623
procedural inefficiency621–23
public participation622
shifting goals and inadequate response624
weak institutions619–20

Water Quality Assessment Authority (WQAA)618

weak environmental governance754–56

West Bengal Coastal Zone Management Plan581

Wetland Atlas516–17

Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules, 2010516–17

wildlife507–8

wildlife conservation ecosystems519–24
elephant corridors and elephant reserves519–21

Wildlife Conservation Strategy, 2002514

Wildlife Crime Control Bureau511–12

Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 (WLPA)90–91, 97, 445, 507–8, 788
Conservation Reserve under section 36A516
Conservation Reserve under sections 36A and 36B under519–20
establishment and protection of protected areas as ecosystems509–13
exclusionary model of wildlife management337
fortress conservation approach489–90
institutions on510–11
issues and concerns with512–13
liability187
principle of public participation298–99
protected areas511–12

World Bank’s Water and Sanitation Programme692

World Commission on Dams113–14

World Trade Organization (WTO)365–66
Agreement on Agriculture (AoA) system, and366–67
compliant patent regime372–76
cotton and national seed market375
establishment of366–67
negotiations376–77

World-Wide Fund for Nature (WWF)47–48

zamindari class20

Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF)360
testing by ICAR360