Introduction

The goal of the Oxford Handbook of Cultural Neuroscience and Global Mental Health is to provide a comprehensive review of evidence-based research in cultural neuroscience to address grand challenges in global mental health. The epidemiology of mental disorders shows geographic variation in the cultural and genetic factors that affect the global prevalence of disease and disorder.

One of the grand challenges in global mental health is to identify biomarkers underlying the etiology of mental, neurological, and substance abuse (MNS) disorders (Collins et al., 2011). MNS disorders make up approximately 13% of the global burden of disease and are an unmet societal burden. The identification of basic cellular and molecular mechanisms of the human brain provides important insights for the discovery of cures for, preventions of, and interventions for MNS disorders.

Research in cultural neuroscience consists of theoretical, methodological, and empirical approaches to the study of cultural influences on neurobiological mechanisms of mental health. The identification of root causes, risk, and preventative factors in MNS disorders builds novel pathways for discovery and delivery science in global mental health. Theoretical approaches in cultural neuroscience build conceptual models and frameworks that provide causal explanations of the mutual influences of cultural and biological systems on the mind, brain, and behavior. Methodological approaches in cultural neuroscience describe complementary tools that allow for the observation of patterns of neural activity during mental function across spatiotemporal scales. Empirical approaches in cultural neuroscience seek to identify the phenotypes and endophenotypes of MNS disorders across cultural settings.

The Handbook chapters provide detailed and systematic reviews of themes and topics in cultural neuroscience and global mental health. This setting of the research agenda is a core function of building research capacity in the field. Specific areas for targeted development consist of scientific research initiatives that systematically define problems, develop scientifically evaluated solutions, and share and apply the generation of scientific knowledge in the field. Research priorities in the field illustrate the specific areas of growth and development of new scientific knowledge. The research agenda in the field details the specific priority research areas for the development and implementation of policies and interventions. Specific research areas with an established evidence base across cultures are necessary for the communication of scientific knowledge to become an evidence-based practice in global mental health.

The Oxford Handbook of Cultural Neuroscience and Global Mental Health is a scholarly collection of chapters organized into five parts. The chapters consist of comprehensive reviews on theoretical, methodological, and empirical foundations in cultural neuroscience and global mental health.

Part I introduces theoretical foundations in cultural neuroscience and global mental health. Chapters 1 through 9 introduce fundamental laws and principles that characterize the necessary and sufficient conditions of scientific explanations in cultural neuroscience and global mental health. The chapters explore the theoretical foundations of culture to explain the etiology of mental disorders in global mental health, ascertain the breadth and depth of causal patterns of cultural and neural phenomena in the natural world, and explore the characteristics of cultural and neural systems and their emergent properties.

In Chapter 1, Scott discusses the cross-national prevalence of mental disorders from the World Mental Health Surveys Initiative. The cross-national prevalence of mental disorders varies across distinct factors. Cross-national variation in mental disorders highlights the importance of understanding how culture affects the manifestation and assessment of mental disorders.

In Chapter 2, Uchiyama and Muthukrishna articulate theories of cultural evolutionary neuroscience to explain processes of cultural and genetic adaptation that guide the evolutionary history of the brain. Cultural evolutionary neuroscience theories elaborate the mutual influence of culture and genetic processes on fundamental elements of the brain across the evolutionary timescale. Processes of cultural transmission and cultural change alter pathways of psychological adaptation.

In Chapter 3, Matsumoto and Hwang introduce theoretical frameworks to understand human culture and its relation to psychological processes. Cultural elements consist of a range of psychological processes that regulate behaviors. Understanding the fundamentals of the psychological construction of culture contributes to the investigation of global mental health.

In Chapter 4, Northoff introduces the foundational concepts to the study of culture and neurophilosophy. Northoff characterizes the processes of embrainment to explain how culture is encoded within neuronal activity and enculturation to illustrate how culture is manifested from neuronal activity of the mental functions of affect and cognition. Northoff articulates how the cultural processes of embrainment and enculturation of the self in neuronal activity are key components of mental health across cultural settings.

In Chapter 5, Chiao, Mano, Li, Bebko, Blizinsky, and Turner review theoretical and methodological approaches to understanding how culture influences neurobiological mechanisms of behavior. Empirical approaches in cultural neuroscience detail programs of research that explain fundamental multilevel mechanisms of culture within the organization of the nervous system. Research in cultural neuroscience aims to identify root causes underlying the etiology of mental disorders.

In Chapter 6, Chiao and Sadato review psychophysiological approaches in cultural neuroscience and global mental health. Cultural processes are instantiated in psychophysiological mechanisms within the central and autonomic nervous system. Spatiotemporal patterns of physiological arousal and electrocortical responses characterize cultural processes in mental constructs.

In Chapter 7, Chiao, Li, and Sadato review cultural and genomic systems that maintain and regulate neurobiological mechanisms of behavior. Cultural processes guide the expression of behavior and genes in the functional activity of neural circuitry. The interaction of genes and environment affects neural and behavioral expression within cultural contexts.

In Chapter 8, Vasquez-Salgado and Greenfield introduce theoretical principles in sociocultural developmental neuroscience. Interdisciplinary work in the field integrates research approaches from sociocultural, developmental, and neuroscience traditions. Sociocultural factors play an important role in shaping neurodevelopmental trajectories.

In Chapter 9, Li discusses the population prospects of an aging population that is undergoing rapid future growth. The growing aging population suggests the importance of preventions and interventions in global mental health that maintain and enhance cognitive functioning and socioemotional well-being. The interaction of the aging brain with cultural resources shows the malleability of brain plasticity through experience and learning.

Part II provides review on the systematic investigation of the etiology of mental health disorders across cultures. Chapters 10 through 18 detail programs of research for the discovery of root causes and risk and protective factors underlying mental disorders across cultures. The chapters describe the impact of global concerns on societal factors affecting mental health and review programs of research that characterize the role of culture in psychological processes and neurobiological mechanisms of behavior. The chapters provide conceptual models of social and biological factors that affect risk and resilience for mental disorders. Scientific progress and achievement in cultural neuroscience are paramount to the discovery of cures, preventions, and interventions in global mental health.

In Chapter 10, Chiao, Mano, Stein, and Sadato present causal models of cultural influences on mental constructs and neurobiological mechanisms of emotion. Culture affects multilevel mechanisms of emotion. Standard paradigms provide methodological tools for the measurement and observation of patterns of emotion phenomena across cultures.

In Chapter 11, Nomura, Tsuda, and Rappleye discuss the importance of culture as a protective factor in mental health. Culture guides the experience of positive and negative emotion. Cultural factors affecting the experience of positive emotion are beneficial to mental health.

In Chapter 12, Masuda, Lee, and Russell review cultural variation in social cognition. Cultural variation in psychological processes, such as attention, are instantiated within cognitive and neural mechanisms. Understanding cultural variation in fundamental psychological processes in cognitive and neural mechanisms contributes to empirical advances in mental health.

In Chapter 13, Tang and Tang review cultural differences in the representation and processing of numerical cognition. Cultural factors play an important role in guiding the acquisition of numerical cognition. Understanding how culture affects numerical cognition has important implications for mathematical education and mental health.

In Chapter 14, Gutchess, Mukadam, Zhang, and Zhang review cultural influences on memory and aging. Culture shapes the malleability of memory and cognition in healthy aging. Culture affects the modification of risk and protective factors of mental disorders.

In Chapter 15, Goto, Lewis, and Grayzel-Ward review cultural variation in self-construal. Cultural influences on self-construal affect cognition and behavior. Understanding how culture affects self-construal contributes to understanding of preventions and interventions for mental disorders.

In Chapter 16, Blais and Caldara discuss cultural differences in visual perception. Cultural and environmental factors affect visual processing of social cues. The influence of culture on visual and social perception, such as on face and emotion recognition, affect the modification of risk and protective factors of mental health.

In Chapter 17, Gianola and Reynolds Losin review theoretical, methodological, and empirical foundations of cultural learning as processes of imitation. Imitation is a core cognitive process of cultural learning. Multilevel mechanisms of cultural learning contribute to alterations in behavioral, cognitive, and neural systems that contribute to mental disorders.

In Chapter 18, Sands and Harris discuss intergroup theories of dehumanization as a societal factor affecting fundamental cognitive processes. Cultural influences on cognitive processes affect social reasoning in intergroup contexts. Systematic investigation of dehumanization contributes to the modification of risk and protective factors affecting global mental health.

Part III discusses the societal and environmental influences that affect prevention and early intervention in global mental health. Chapters 19 to 23 provide a systematic review of cultural factors affecting the development and implementation of prevention of and early intervention for mental disorders in global mental health.

In Chapter 19, Varnum and Hampton articulate systematic research programs that investigate patterns of cultural change. Theoretical frameworks in behavioral ecology posit ecological factors that affect causal patterns of cultural change. The neuroscience of cultural change investigates the environmental influences on the structure and function of the brain across cultures.

In Chapter 20, Goh postulates characteristics of neuroplasticity that contribute to neural mechanisms of behavioral acculturation. Processes of behavioral acculturation affect neurocomputation. Investigation of the relation between the dynamics of neuroplasticity and acculturation may provide insight into biomarkers of mental disorders.

In Chapter 21, Chiao, Mano, and Sadato review the translation of evidence-based research in cultural neuroscience into the development and implementation of technological innovations for prevention and early intervention in global mental health. The use of evidence-based cultural neuroscience research in the practice of global mental health requires the transformation of new scientific knowledge into technological innovation for the development of mental health promotion. Evidence-based research in cultural neuroscience informs the design and practical application of technological innovations for prevention and early intervention in global mental health.

In Chapter 22, Chiao, Mano, and Sadato review the mutual influence of cultural and environmental systems. Geographic variations in environmental conditions are a causal influence on the maintenance and regulation of cultural systems. Reciprocally, cultural systems serve as a protective factor in global mental health.

In Chapter 23, Jensen discusses the influence of globalization on human development across cultural contexts. Globalization affects societal exposure to risk and protective factors of mental health across cultures. Systematic research on globalization and its impact on human development across cultures contributes to the development and implementation of prevention of and early intervention for mental disorders in global mental health.

Part IV examines strategies for the improvement of treatment and expansion of access to care in global mental health. Chapters 24 and 25 review the societal factors that affect the effectiveness and access to care for MNS disorders across cultural settings.

In Chapter 24, Iidaka provides a systematic analysis of the role of cultural and economic factors that affect the prevalence of mental disorders across nations. Cultural factors contribute to the prevention of and early intervention for mental disorders. Macroeconomic factors affect the effectiveness of interventions for mental disorders within the cultural context.

In Chapter 25, Tang and Tang propose an integrative health model for the development and implementation of prevention of and early intervention for mental disorders in global mental health. Culture affects the development and effectiveness of evidence-based care for mental disorders. The incorporation of cultural factors into the development and implementation of interventions and evidence-based care is an effective strategy for mental health promotion.

Part V reviews the cultural and socioeconomic factors that affect the prevalence of mental disorders across ethnic groups. Chapters 26 through 29 discuss the contribution of race, ethnicity, stigma, socioeconomic status , as well as social-linguistic and cultural factors on autobiographic memory to variation in the prevalence of health disparities. The chapters discuss research, practice, and policy for the amelioration of mental health disparities across cultural contexts.

In Chapter 26, Chiao and Blizinsky review the cultural factors affecting mental health disparities of racial and ethnic groups. Cultural and genetic variations of ethnic and racial groups contribute to the variation in prevalence of mental disorders. Closing the gap in racial and ethnic disparities in mental health is necessary to achieve health equity.

In Chapter 27, Bart-Plange and Trawalter review the translation of research on stigma into policy that eliminates health disparities and improves health equity. Stigma manifests at multiple levels and contributes to health inequalities. The reduction and elimination of stigma are necessary as a policy solution to reduce social disparities in health.

In Chapter 28, Alvarez and Muscatell review the cultural processes and neural mechanisms that contribute to socioeconomic disparities. Cultural and psychological processes contribute to the perception and subjective experience of socioeconomic status. Mental health promotion strategies that build resilience contribute to the amelioration of socioeconomic health disparities.

In Chapter 29, Chae and Wang review the influences of social-linguistic and other cultural factors, such as family narrative practices and emotional knowledge, on autobiographic memory. The cumulated memory of personal experiences throughout life allows individuals to form clear and distinct representations of themselves. Disturbed or disrupted self-concepts or self-identities are at the core of many mental health issues, including depression and dementia. Cultural differences in mechanisms underlying autobiographic memory thus may moderate relations between self-identity and psychological well-being.

This scholarly collection provides a detailed and in-depth review of themes and topics in cultural neuroscience and global mental health. Addressing grand challenges in global mental health requires a multitude of approaches improving quality of life and reducing the societal burden of mental disorders. Research, practice, and policy in cultural neuroscience and global mental health that build evidence-based approaches to discovery and delivery science provide the necessary foundation for the amelioration of mental disorders across nations.

The advancement of research, practice, and policy in cultural neuroscience and global mental health contributes to the alleviation of the societal and economic burden of mental disorders. Ultimately, through the generation and sharing of novel scientific knowledge, we gain insight into ways that mental health and well-being of individuals, societies, and nations can be achieved.