List of Illustrations

Number of European Palaeolithic sites with reliable evidence of controlled light production.  23

Lamp made from concavity in broken stalactite.  27

Open-air hearth from the Late Magdalenian Level IV40, Sector 36 of Pincevent, France.  28

The ‘Bison Man’ (shadow) of El Castillo cave (Cantabria, Spain).  33

One of many hand stencils from El Castillo cave (Cantabria, Spain) produced by projecting liquid pigment at a hand placed against the cave wall.  34

Distribution of 58 Greek temple orientations classed either as ‘chthonic’ or ‘ouranic’.  47

Votive relief to Artemis Locheia/Eileithyia, Achinos (PE 1041), third century bce.  50

View of oracle of the dead at Cape Tainaro.  56

Didyma Temple of Apollo, north passage to temple’s interior.  57

Didyma, Temple of Apollo, south passage from temple’s internal courtyard.  58

Klaros, Temple of Apollo, subterranean structures.  59

The greater region that the project covers in western Scotland, and the case-study area.  107

Three 360° landscapes surrounding the site of Lochbuie.  108

The dominant peak in the northwest at the summer solstice at the time of, and after, the sunset at the circle of Lochbuie.  115

Back-glow around the horizon at Lochbuie from midnight.  116

Shared midnight skies and lighting at sites across the iIle of Mull.  117

What can be seen around the entire horizon from the centre Lochbuie stone circle at the winter solstice during 1500 bc from 0:00 to 7:00 a.m.  122

Southern cardinal positions of the moon and sun at different times of day at the winter solstice.  127

What can be seen around the entire horizon from the centre Lochbuie stone circle at the winter solstice during 1500 bc from 8:30 a.m. to 4:00 p.m.  128

What can be seen around the entire horizon from the centre Lochbuie stone circle at the winter solstice during 1500 bc from 4:40 p.m to 8:15 p.m.  129

 Close-up of the in situ standing stone at Ardalanish, Isle of Mull in Argyll and Bute, embedded with quartz.  132

Newgrange in 1962 before excavation and restoration.  142

The roof-box and passage in the course of reconstruction.  143

The restored roof-box and decorated lintel.  143

Post-reconstruction changes to the roof-box.  145

Outer section of the passage with proposed free-standing extension.  146

Passage of winter solstice light through the roof-box, bisecting the passage roof slabs.  147

Interior of the roof-box.  149

(a) Mnajdra lower temple. (b) Equinox sunrise illuminates the interior of the Maltese Megalithic temple of Mnajdra.  167

Anta Grande do Zambujeiro, Portugal.  170

The tholos of Huerta Montero in Almendralejo has its corridor oriented towards sunrise at the winter solstice.  171

Corridor of the La Pastora tholos in Valencina de la Concepcion.  173

The Cueva de Menga dolmen.  175

The corridor of the Viera dolmen and the inner chamber of the Romeral tholos.  177

The central area of the Barbanza necropolis.  180

Alignment of the moment of dawn with the entrance of Mesara-type tomb Kaloi Limenes I at the ‘times of the dead’  187

The ‘throne’ in the ‘Throne Room’ of the Knossos Palace at the moment of dawn soon after the winter solstice.  188

(a) Diagram of the Knossos Palace ‘Throne Room’ showing architectural irregularities that facilitate the midsummer and equinox dawn alignments. (b) At the moment of summer solstice dawn, a ray of light penetrates to the inner wall of the ‘Lustral Basin’ of the Knossos ‘Throne Rooom’, creating a spotlight effect on any person or object caught in the beam.  190

(a) Odysseus consulting Teiresias on Apulian-style krater. (b) Hermes holding kerykeion calls out bearded head from the ground on Italian ringstone, late Roman Republic.  194

(a) Oracle of Orpheus on hydria of Polygnotus group. (b) Oracle of Orpheus on Attic bowl of Ruvo artist.  197

Plan of Porti tomb ‘Pi’.  199

(a.) Radiant symbol on steatite sealstone from Porti. (b) Animal heads with radiant symbol on steatite prism seal from Mesara-type tomb Platanos B. (c) Female figure (?) kneading a mixture on terracotta model from Mesara-type tomb Kamilari A. (d) ‘Dancing women’ with arms raised to radiant symbol on steatite prism seal from north-central Crete. (e) Skull in vessel from Archanes cemetery. (f) Ecstatic dance on steatite sealstone from Mesara-type tomb Platanos B. (g) Seated ‘ancestors’ on terracotta model from Mesara-type tomb Kamilari A. Heraklion Museum. (h) Detail from Ayia Triadha sarcophagus, taken as showing the deceased in front of his tomb.  201

Setting sun and opposing sun dogs, i.e. parhelia, above east-central Illinois.  209

Entanglement of a wayfaring organism with a celestial pathway.  210

Perception and association as triangulation.  211

Palimpsest of bundles and bundle transfers through across space and through two iterations of time.  212

LiDAR plan view of the Emerald site acropolis.  215

Plan of Emerald, Angel, Trempealeau, and Cahokia, c.1050–1100 ce.  216

Mt Taylor, looking northwest, January 2013.  227

Pueblo Bonito, looking southeast, from the north rim of Chaco Canyon, September 2013.  229

Fajada Butte, looking west, July 2010.  231

Full moonrise on the major lunar standstill at Chimney Rock, 26 December 2004.  233

Sunlight and shadow inside the ruins of the great house of Pueblo Bonito in Chaco Canyon, June 2011.  236

Inside the reconstructed great kiva at the outlier of Aztec West, September 2013.  237

View of small rock shelter, showing large anthropomorphic face on the right side of the west entrance.  251

The Spirit Bear.  253

Materialization of Shadow Bear.  254

Bear paw petroglyph tagged by light dagger.  255

Shadow performance of the Twin War Gods.  256

Light dagger interaction with crescent and dot.  257

Shadow performance of Elder and Younger War Gods.  258

Giza, summer solstice.  270

Silhouette of the Sphinx between the two main pyramids, photographed at summer solstice.  271

Karnak, winter solstice.  273

Abu Simbel, the innermost chapel of the temple of Ramesses II.  275

Karnak, the hypostile hall.  277

Abydos, Light and shadow effects in the hypostile hall of the temple of Seti I.  278

Parthenon.  286

Doric column.  287

Schematic plans and sections, Greek temple, Roman basilica, and Byzantine church.  290

Anthemius’ ellipsoidal reflector.  293

Computer model of Hagia Sophia original dome.  294

Hagia Sophia cross-section.  295

Interior of Tveje Merløse church, view to the east towards the altar.  304

Interior of Hørning church, view to the east towards the altar.  306

Interior of Bagsværd church.  312

Interior of Skæring church.  313

‘Devotional candelabrum’ in the Resurrection Church, Albertslund.  318

Copper alloy chandelier (polycandelon), sixth century.  330

Copper alloy cross with rings for holding lamps, fifth–seventh centuries, Thessaloniki.  331

Use of a candle during the reading of the Gospel in a wall painting in the Church of the Saviour, Thessaloniki, fourteenth century.  333

Glass mosque lamp with gold and enamelled decoration.  338

Glass spherical lamp-fitting with gold and enamelled decoration, Egypt or Syria, fourteenth century.  339

Brass candlestick with inlaid silver decoration.  341

Descent of the Holy Spirit upon the Apostles, icon.  344

Corona around the moon.  357

Cross- in- circle halo display and sundogs  359

Sun pillar.  359

Saami shaman drum.  362

Pendants of the Bronze Age Carpathian Basin.  365

The sun bark symbol and a complex halo display.  368

Classic Vučedol Culture pot with the possible depiction of four sundogs and the rhombus sun in the middle.  370

Cross of Eirēnē Palailogina, mid-fourteenth century.  376

Cross of Eirēnē Palailogina, mid-fourteenth century.  377

Cross of Eirēnē Palailogina, mid-fourteenth century.  378

Crucifixion and Baptism as illustration to Psalm 73, Khludov Psalter.  382

Tunic with Dionysian Ornament, fifth century.  384

Deposition and Lamentation, Lectionary.  387

Deposition and Lamentation, Lectionary.  388

Spout lamps of the FEMM-Th collection.  398

Multi-spouted brass lucerna table lamp.  400

Metal cases for hanging floating-wick oil lamps.  402

A floating-wick oil lamp.  403

The allegory of death in the form of a naked, winged young man, burning out the torch of life––tombstone in Chalkida, old cemetery.  406

Another allegory of death burning out the torch of life, carved on a tombstone in Chalkida, old cemetery.  408

 A tombstone at the old cemetery in Chalkida representing a hand pouring oil into an archaic oil lamp.  409

A mirror plaque with a gabled architectural façade, probably from Israel.  418

Photoamulets: clay lampettes from Tomb 148, Thessaloniki.  421

Photoamulets: lamp-shaped pendant fashioned in blue glass, Italy; two pendants in the form of lamps in green glass, Egypt.  424

A glass token or amulet with a menorah image, reportedly from Israel.  425

A Hellenistic sketch of a lit glass bowl lamp on top of an altar and a bust of the resurrected deceased wearing a skullcap, Marissa, Israel.  428

Apotropaic medical instrument with an image of the healing god Sminthian Apollo represented as a mouse, Asia Minor.  429

House XXV at Tell Asmar.  441

House XLVIII and House L at Khafajah.  443

House XLVII and House XXVII at Khafajah.  444

No. 5 Quiet Street at Ur.  446

Houses with a second rank of rooms along one side of the courtyard.  448

Three houses at Ur which demonstrate the isolation of domestic chapels from doorway light.  449

Houses at Ur analysed with their chapel rooms modelled as roofed and un-roofed.  451

Houses at Ur demonstrating the doorway lighting provided to living rooms when domestic chapels are modelled as un-roofed.  453

The circular room with open oculus, closed oculus, and rectangular entrance hall.  464

Sites probably equipped with domed oculi.  465

Chronology of villas probably fitted with domed oculi.  465

Geography of sites probably equipped with oculi.  466

The sites of Lürken, Mayen I, and Park Street.  468

Geography of sites equipped with a central hearth.  469

Chronology of sites equipped with a monumental fireplace in a central position.  470

Computer reconstruction of the exterior and interior of a Thule whalebone house.  478

Computer reconstruction of the exterior and interior of an Inuvialuit sod house from archaeological data.  480

Lighting study showing how the placement of light affects perceptions of the Inuvialuit sod house interior.  484

Illuminance maps of the interior of an Inuvialuit sod house, and showing illuminated floor plan of Inuvialuit sod house.  488

 GIS model showing artefact distributions as a function of lamp placement/luminance, and distribution of hide working and sewing artefacts as a function of lamp placement/luminance.  491

Cumulative frequency histogram showing how the frequency of hide working and sewing artefacts increases with luminance. (b) Inverse square intensity relationship from a point source of light.  492

Robustness of the relationship between luminance and the frequency of hide working/sewing artefacts.  494

Roman lamp.  501

Lighting equipment at Casa della Ara Massima.  506

Lighting equipment at House I 10,8  507

Lighting equipment at Casa del Principe di Napoli.  508

Lighting equipment at Casa del Fabbro.  510

Lighting equipment at Casa degli Amanti.  511

Llghting equipment at Casa di Julius Polybius.  513

Lighting equipment at Casa del Menandro.  515

Late eighteenth-century Argand oil lamp excavated at New Lanark Mills.  524

Lumbhole Mill, Kettleshulme, Cheshire.  526

Gas works plant built by Samuel Clegg in 1809 for Ackerman’s Print Works, The Strand, London.  528

Remains of D-shaped retorts and retort benches, Shaw Lodge Mill, Halifax.  529

Strutts’ Mills, Belper, Derbyshire.  533

Cotton spinning in a factory attic (possibly Holmes Mill, Clitheroe, Lancashire), c.1834.  534

The location of the main passage tombs mentioned in the text.  542

Fieldwork at Bryn Celli Ddu, Anglesey.  544

Fieldwork at Cuween Hill, Orkney.  545

Animating optical projections.  546

Fieldwork at Wideford Hill, Orkney.  548

Fieldwork at Vinquoy Hill.  549

Fieldwork at the Dwarfie Stane, Orkney.  550

The frequency of sunlight according to the month in the island of Malta.  563

Access to the principal prehistoric monuments of Malta.  569

View from within the Ggantija temple towards the entrance.  571

The relative visibility of space in the memory monument of Ggantija.  572

Idealized model of the distribution of light and dark in a prehistoric Maltese memory monument.  573

Tentative reconstruction of the Ghajnsielem Road house.  574

A tentative landscape cosmology of light.  576

The climax of the rites of Eleusis was the appearance of the goddess in or as light.  588

Painted clay heads of female figurines unearthed from the sanctuary of Eleusis and dating from the late fourth or early third century bce.  589

Schematic of the experiment space.  592

Mock anaktoron with figurine.  592

Mock telesterion with the image of the figurine projected onto the far wall.  594

Proposed operation for the manufacture of the appearance of the goddess.  596

Floor plans of the Pisistratan, Cimonian, and Periclean versions of the telesterion.  598

A selection of spouted and floating-wick lamps used for the experiments, as well as loumini wicks.  612

Some of the torches used for the experiments.  613

Light intensity distributions of floating-wick lamps.  614

Light intensity distributions of spouted lamps.  615

Light intensity distributions of torches and candles.  615

Before dawn. Stirring the melted glass in the cauldron inside the glass furnace.  634

First light. Smoky glass furnace in the shadow of the roof of the workshop.  634

Early morning. Preparing the glass to be blown.  635

Early morning. Visible flames in the shadow.  636

Midday. Preparing the glass to be blown.  636

Late afternoon. Lighted furnaces by the sun.  637

Twilight. Very visible flames of the ceramic kiln (left) and glass furnace (centre).  638

Twilight. The last light of the sunset reflected on the wall and costumes of the performers.  638

The workshop lighted by a fire positioned in front of the furnace for metal casting.  639

27 July 2007, 08.31 hours. Light against the west wall of the Experimental House  648

Above a trench that was dug for the construction of the north shelter; north area.  649

Digital reproduction of the Experimental House.  650

Experimental House in Çatalhöyük, Turkey.  651

The journey of the beam of light inside the Experimental House.  652

Shadows of a young woman walking down the steps to the Experimental House.  653

Human shadows taken at several locations.  655

8 July 2007, 16.00 hours; 8 July 2007, 12.00 hours.  656

5 August 2007, 12.30–13.00 hours.  657

4 August 2007, 16.42 hours.  658

 25 July 2007, 12.00 hours; 31 August 2007, 16.00 hours; 2 August 2007, 18.02 hours.  659

The effect of sun on a mortar on the roof of the Experimental House.  660

1–15 August 2007.  663

17 July 2007, 16.30 hours; 29 July 2007, 10.02 hours.  664

27 July 2007, 10.34 hours.  665

Wall painting fragment Z42.  677

Alabaster alabastron B61.  678

Glass alabastron Δ32.  679

RTI visualization of details from pelikes H2 and Γ1.  681

Gold gilded leaf from a wreath.  682

Gold coin, reverse, Δ2.  683

Incised ivory plaque fragment E7a.  684

Glass-mounted Derveni papyrus fragment.  685

Iona Abbey Museum, Island of Iona.  699

Iona Abbey Museum, Island of Iona.  700

Maeshowe Neolithic Chambered Cairn, Orkney World Heritage Site.  702

Maeshowe Dragon, Maeshowe Neolithic Chambered Cairn, Orkney World Heritage Site.  703

Skara Brae Visitor Centre Museum, Orkney.  705

Bishop’s effigy from Elgin Cathedral.  709

Images of the ‘mother goddess’ before reconstruction.  722

First line drawings of the ‘mother goddess’.  724

Wall 93, Building 2, Space 117.  728

Wall 66, Building 2, Space 117.  729

Wall 66, Building 2, Space 117.  730

Wall 66, Building 2, Space 117.  730

Shading for key figures.  443

Recommended light levels for generalized tasks.  489

Lighting equipment from ten Pompeian households.  505

Technical characteristics and photometric properties of floating-wick lamps.  616

Technical characteristics and photometric properties of spouted lamps.  617

Technical characteristics and photometric properties of torches.  618

Technical characteristics and photometric properties of candles.  618

Technical characteristics and photometric properties of hearths.  619