
Contents
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
What Is a Victim? What Is a Victim?
-
Why Are Some Behaviors Considered Crimes? Why Are Some Behaviors Considered Crimes?
-
Criminal Cost-inflicting Behaviors Criminal Cost-inflicting Behaviors
-
Contexts Selecting for the Infliction of Costs Contexts Selecting for the Infliction of Costs
-
Conflict over Status Conflict over Status
-
Conflict over Material Resources Conflict over Material Resources
-
Conflict over Mating Resources Conflict over Mating Resources
-
-
The Coevolution of Cost-infliction and Victim Defenses The Coevolution of Cost-infliction and Victim Defenses
-
The Three Temporal Contexts of Victim Defenses The Three Temporal Contexts of Victim Defenses
-
Adaptations to Prevent or Avoid Victimization Adaptations to Prevent or Avoid Victimization
-
Adaptations to Minimize Costs During Victimization Adaptations to Minimize Costs During Victimization
-
Post-victimization Adaptations Post-victimization Adaptations
-
-
Adaptations to Damage Status Adaptations to Damage Status
-
Defenses against Status Damage Defenses against Status Damage
-
Adaptations for Theft and Cheating Adaptations for Theft and Cheating
-
Defenses against Theft and Cheating Defenses against Theft and Cheating
-
Adaptations for Violence Adaptations for Violence
-
Victim Defenses against Violence Victim Defenses against Violence
-
Adaptations that Produce Rape Adaptations that Produce Rape
-
Victim Defenses against Rape Victim Defenses against Rape
-
Adaptations that Produce Homicide Adaptations that Produce Homicide
-
Homicide as a By-product of Other Evolved Mechanisms Homicide as a By-product of Other Evolved Mechanisms
-
The Fitness Costs of Being Killed The Fitness Costs of Being Killed
-
Defenses against Homicide Defenses against Homicide
-
The Nature of Selection Pressures for Homicide Defense Adaptations The Nature of Selection Pressures for Homicide Defense Adaptations
-
Avoiding Contexts Where Homicide Is Likely Avoiding Contexts Where Homicide Is Likely
-
-
Evidence of Adaptations for Homicide and Homicide Defenses Evidence of Adaptations for Homicide and Homicide Defenses
-
Managing Errors to Avoid Being Killed Managing Errors to Avoid Being Killed
-
Secrecy Secrecy
-
-
Killing in Self-defense: Preemptive Homicide to Prevent Being Killed Killing in Self-defense: Preemptive Homicide to Prevent Being Killed
-
Conclusion Conclusion
-
Acknowledgment Acknowledgment
-
References References
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Cite
Abstract
An evolutionary exploration of victimization demands a more inclusive definition of victimization. This chapter argues that the genetic relatives, romantic partners, and close allies of the primary victims of exploitative or violent strategies also incur costs and can be considered secondary victims. Primary victims of crime share genes with all of their living genetic relatives. Because natural selection operates through the differential replication of genes, costs to genetic fitness resulting from the victimization of a family member are shared across all of the person's genetic relatives. Because a victim's closer genetic relatives share more copies of the victim's genes, the costs that they incur are greater than those endured by more distant genetic relatives. Spouses and close social allies can also be secondary victims, incurring costs as a result of loss of investment or protection, and perhaps by gaining a reputation of being vulnerable to exploitation. It is hypothesized that selection fashioned adaptations in both primary and secondary victims to prevent or stanch the costs of victimization.
Sign in
Personal account
- Sign in with email/username & password
- Get email alerts
- Save searches
- Purchase content
- Activate your purchase/trial code
- Add your ORCID iD
Purchase
Our books are available by subscription or purchase to libraries and institutions.
Purchasing informationMonth: | Total Views: |
---|---|
October 2022 | 1 |
November 2022 | 1 |
March 2023 | 7 |
April 2023 | 1 |
May 2023 | 2 |
November 2023 | 4 |
February 2024 | 2 |
March 2024 | 2 |
April 2024 | 1 |
May 2024 | 3 |
June 2024 | 2 |
October 2024 | 1 |
March 2025 | 1 |
Get help with access
Institutional access
Access to content on Oxford Academic is often provided through institutional subscriptions and purchases. If you are a member of an institution with an active account, you may be able to access content in one of the following ways:
IP based access
Typically, access is provided across an institutional network to a range of IP addresses. This authentication occurs automatically, and it is not possible to sign out of an IP authenticated account.
Sign in through your institution
Choose this option to get remote access when outside your institution. Shibboleth/Open Athens technology is used to provide single sign-on between your institution’s website and Oxford Academic.
If your institution is not listed or you cannot sign in to your institution’s website, please contact your librarian or administrator.
Sign in with a library card
Enter your library card number to sign in. If you cannot sign in, please contact your librarian.
Society Members
Society member access to a journal is achieved in one of the following ways:
Sign in through society site
Many societies offer single sign-on between the society website and Oxford Academic. If you see ‘Sign in through society site’ in the sign in pane within a journal:
If you do not have a society account or have forgotten your username or password, please contact your society.
Sign in using a personal account
Some societies use Oxford Academic personal accounts to provide access to their members. See below.
Personal account
A personal account can be used to get email alerts, save searches, purchase content, and activate subscriptions.
Some societies use Oxford Academic personal accounts to provide access to their members.
Viewing your signed in accounts
Click the account icon in the top right to:
Signed in but can't access content
Oxford Academic is home to a wide variety of products. The institutional subscription may not cover the content that you are trying to access. If you believe you should have access to that content, please contact your librarian.
Institutional account management
For librarians and administrators, your personal account also provides access to institutional account management. Here you will find options to view and activate subscriptions, manage institutional settings and access options, access usage statistics, and more.