Examples of spatiotemporal-model-derived area-weighted indices of biomass for three groundfish species in the GOA across four observation likelihoods. Left column shows the indices of biomass (mean and 95% CI) with AIC weight percentages shown at the top. Right columns illustrate associated quantile–quantile plots for randomized quantile residuals that would be distributed as standard normal if the model were consistent with the data. The diagonal line corresponds to the 1:1 line. The panels are ordered from top to bottom in order of decreasing Q value (i.e. light-tailed to heavy-tailed). For Pacific Spiny Dogfish, we have truncated the y-axis and omitted values of the index estimated using the Tweedie |$>10^4$| to improve visualization of the differences in the indices estimated using the delta-lognormal, delta–gamma, and delta–gamma. The biomass indices for all other stocks are shown in Figs S7–S9.