Population structure and relationships among buffaloes. (a) Geographic map indicating the origins of the buffalo breeds. (b) Neighbour-joining tree of buffaloes constructed using whole-genome autosomal SNP data. (c, d) Principal component analyses (PCA) showing PC1 against PC2 and PC1 against PC3, respectively. Each breed was labelled with different colors and shapes as shown in the top of Fig. 1e. (e) Genetic structure of buffalo breeds using ADMIXTURE program with K = 2, 4. Population acronyms are explained in Supplementary Tables 1 and 5.