Common endourological procedures for the treatment of urinary calculi. (A) ESWL. A correlation between ESWL and AKI has been suggested but more evidence is needed [7]. (B) URS. A semi-rigid ureteroscope is used to treat only ureteral calculi. There is evidence that URS may cause AKI [3] but further research is needed. (C) PCNL. The kidney is punctured and the track is dilated in order to place a sheath for nephroscope insertion and stone fragment removal. PCNL has been associated with AKI but further research is needed [4, 5]. (D) RIRS. A flexible ureteroscope is advanced to the kidney through the ureter in order to perform laser lithotripsy. During RIRS, increased intrarenal pressures are observed, hypothesizing that AKI can manifest following the obstructive uropathy model [6]. Definitive proof of AKI in humans is still lacking.