Table 1. Open in new tab Circulating...

	Control	Fasting	Fasting Plus GHA
Glucose, mmol/L	5.2  (4.8–5.5)	4.6  (4.4–4.9)^a	3.9  (3.6–4.2)^b	4.9  (4.7–5.1)^a	3.9  (3.6–4.2)^c	5.0  (4.8–5.1)^a
Insulin, pmol/L	43  (30–61)	297  (231–382)^a	23  (17–30)^b	254  (177–364)^a	23  (15–34)^c	350  (267–460)^a
C-peptide, pmol/L	368  (258–479)	264  (163–366)^a	177  (128–225)^b	252  (151–353)^a	224  (137–312)^c	305  (230–380)^a
Glucagon, ng/L	67  (45–90)	48  (36–59)^a	93  (73–113)^b	58  (39–77)^a^,^b	85  (72–97)^c	48  (36–60)^a
Cortisol, nmol/L	86  (58–127)	70  (49–101)	91  (62–132)^b	119  (79–178)^b	86  (59–124)	77  (55–107)
NE, pg/mL	132  (88–175)	159  (116–202)	246  (134–358)^b	213  (150–275)^b	213  (130–296)^d	200  (136–263)^d
EPI, pg/mL	35 (25–48)	47 (35–63)^a	43 (31–60)	49 (39–61)^a	35 (25–47)	44 (31–61)^a
FFA, mmol/L	0.38  (0.26–0.50)	0.03  (0.01–0.06)^a	0.85  (0.73–0.97)^b	0.29  (0.19–0.39)^a^,^b	0.91  (0.75–1.1)^c	0.21  (0.1–0.32)^a^,^d
Palmitate, μmol/L	113  (78–148)	18  (11–24)^a	327  (289–365)^b	101  (67–136)^a^,^b	316  (254–377)^c	81  (48–114)^a^,^c
BHB, μmol/L	37.3  (12.4–62.1)	9.1  (2.1–16)^e	2137  (1486–2787)^b	1235  (807–1663)^a^,^b	2151  (1525–2778)^c	1066  (748–1383)^a^,^c
HMB, μmol/L	1.85  (1.46–2.24)	1.62  (1.33–1.91)^a	4.74  (3.79–5.70)^b	4.0  (3.36–4.65)^a^,^b	4.57  (3.53–5.61)^c	3.82  (2.98–4.65)^a^,^c
REE, kcal/d	1793  (1573–2013)	1818  (1638–1999)	1837  (1619–2056)	1816  (1609–2022)	1922  (1745–2099)^d	1909  (1734–2085)^d
RQ	0.84  (0.79–0.89)	0.88  (0.81–0.94)	0.76  (0.73–0.78)^b	0.73  (0.71–0.76)^b	0.76  (0.72–0.79)^c	0.76  (0.70–0.82)^c
POX, mg/kg/min	0.82  (66–98)	0.77  (0.62–0.91)	0.75  (0.60–0.90)	0.69  (0.44–0.94)	0.75  (0.67–0.83)	0.78  (0.62–0.93)
GOX, mg/kg/min	1.1  (0.58–1.57)	1.54  (0.73–2.36)	0.24  (−0.1 to 0.54)^b	−0.01  (−0.26 to 0.23)^b	0.24  (−0.23 to 0.70)^c	0.34  (−0.47 to 1.16)^c
NOGD, mg/kg/min	0.11  (−0.44 to 0.65)	1.56  (0.31–2.81)^a	0.68  (0.36–1.0)^f	1.61  (1.25–2.0)^a^,^f	0.68  (0.32–1.0)	1.41  (0.47–2.35)^a
LIPOX, mg/kg/min	0.47  (0.23–0.72)	0.34  (0.02–0.66)	0.93  (0.78–1.09)^b	1.03  (0.82–1.24)^b	1.02  (0.78–1.26)^c	0.95  (0.61–1.29)^c
UNSR, g/d	18  (14–22)	17  (14–20)	16  (13–18)	14  (10–19)	16  (14–18)	16  (13–19)

	Control	Fasting	Fasting Plus GHA
Glucose, mmol/L	5.2  (4.8–5.5)	4.6  (4.4–4.9)^a	3.9  (3.6–4.2)^b	4.9  (4.7–5.1)^a	3.9  (3.6–4.2)^c	5.0  (4.8–5.1)^a
Insulin, pmol/L	43  (30–61)	297  (231–382)^a	23  (17–30)^b	254  (177–364)^a	23  (15–34)^c	350  (267–460)^a
C-peptide, pmol/L	368  (258–479)	264  (163–366)^a	177  (128–225)^b	252  (151–353)^a	224  (137–312)^c	305  (230–380)^a
Glucagon, ng/L	67  (45–90)	48  (36–59)^a	93  (73–113)^b	58  (39–77)^a^,^b	85  (72–97)^c	48  (36–60)^a
Cortisol, nmol/L	86  (58–127)	70  (49–101)	91  (62–132)^b	119  (79–178)^b	86  (59–124)	77  (55–107)
NE, pg/mL	132  (88–175)	159  (116–202)	246  (134–358)^b	213  (150–275)^b	213  (130–296)^d	200  (136–263)^d
EPI, pg/mL	35 (25–48)	47 (35–63)^a	43 (31–60)	49 (39–61)^a	35 (25–47)	44 (31–61)^a
FFA, mmol/L	0.38  (0.26–0.50)	0.03  (0.01–0.06)^a	0.85  (0.73–0.97)^b	0.29  (0.19–0.39)^a^,^b	0.91  (0.75–1.1)^c	0.21  (0.1–0.32)^a^,^d
Palmitate, μmol/L	113  (78–148)	18  (11–24)^a	327  (289–365)^b	101  (67–136)^a^,^b	316  (254–377)^c	81  (48–114)^a^,^c
BHB, μmol/L	37.3  (12.4–62.1)	9.1  (2.1–16)^e	2137  (1486–2787)^b	1235  (807–1663)^a^,^b	2151  (1525–2778)^c	1066  (748–1383)^a^,^c
HMB, μmol/L	1.85  (1.46–2.24)	1.62  (1.33–1.91)^a	4.74  (3.79–5.70)^b	4.0  (3.36–4.65)^a^,^b	4.57  (3.53–5.61)^c	3.82  (2.98–4.65)^a^,^c
REE, kcal/d	1793  (1573–2013)	1818  (1638–1999)	1837  (1619–2056)	1816  (1609–2022)	1922  (1745–2099)^d	1909  (1734–2085)^d
RQ	0.84  (0.79–0.89)	0.88  (0.81–0.94)	0.76  (0.73–0.78)^b	0.73  (0.71–0.76)^b	0.76  (0.72–0.79)^c	0.76  (0.70–0.82)^c
POX, mg/kg/min	0.82  (66–98)	0.77  (0.62–0.91)	0.75  (0.60–0.90)	0.69  (0.44–0.94)	0.75  (0.67–0.83)	0.78  (0.62–0.93)
GOX, mg/kg/min	1.1  (0.58–1.57)	1.54  (0.73–2.36)	0.24  (−0.1 to 0.54)^b	−0.01  (−0.26 to 0.23)^b	0.24  (−0.23 to 0.70)^c	0.34  (−0.47 to 1.16)^c
NOGD, mg/kg/min	0.11  (−0.44 to 0.65)	1.56  (0.31–2.81)^a	0.68  (0.36–1.0)^f	1.61  (1.25–2.0)^a^,^f	0.68  (0.32–1.0)	1.41  (0.47–2.35)^a
LIPOX, mg/kg/min	0.47  (0.23–0.72)	0.34  (0.02–0.66)	0.93  (0.78–1.09)^b	1.03  (0.82–1.24)^b	1.02  (0.78–1.26)^c	0.95  (0.61–1.29)^c
UNSR, g/d	18  (14–22)	17  (14–20)	16  (13–18)	14  (10–19)	16  (14–18)	16  (13–19)

Table 1.

Circulating Hormones, Metabolites, and Oxidation Rates

	Control		Fasting		Fasting Plus GHA
	Basal	HEC	Basal	HEC	Basal	HEC
Glucose, mmol/L	5.2  (4.8–5.5)	4.6  (4.4–4.9)^a	3.9  (3.6–4.2)^b	4.9  (4.7–5.1)^a	3.9  (3.6–4.2)^c	5.0  (4.8–5.1)^a
Insulin, pmol/L	43  (30–61)	297  (231–382)^a	23  (17–30)^b	254  (177–364)^a	23  (15–34)^c	350  (267–460)^a
C-peptide, pmol/L	368  (258–479)	264  (163–366)^a	177  (128–225)^b	252  (151–353)^a	224  (137–312)^c	305  (230–380)^a
Glucagon, ng/L	67  (45–90)	48  (36–59)^a	93  (73–113)^b	58  (39–77)^a^,^b	85  (72–97)^c	48  (36–60)^a
Cortisol, nmol/L	86  (58–127)	70  (49–101)	91  (62–132)^b	119  (79–178)^b	86  (59–124)	77  (55–107)
NE, pg/mL	132  (88–175)	159  (116–202)	246  (134–358)^b	213  (150–275)^b	213  (130–296)^d	200  (136–263)^d
EPI, pg/mL	35 (25–48)	47 (35–63)^a	43 (31–60)	49 (39–61)^a	35 (25–47)	44 (31–61)^a
FFA, mmol/L	0.38  (0.26–0.50)	0.03  (0.01–0.06)^a	0.85  (0.73–0.97)^b	0.29  (0.19–0.39)^a^,^b	0.91  (0.75–1.1)^c	0.21  (0.1–0.32)^a^,^d
Palmitate, μmol/L	113  (78–148)	18  (11–24)^a	327  (289–365)^b	101  (67–136)^a^,^b	316  (254–377)^c	81  (48–114)^a^,^c
BHB, μmol/L	37.3  (12.4–62.1)	9.1  (2.1–16)^e	2137  (1486–2787)^b	1235  (807–1663)^a^,^b	2151  (1525–2778)^c	1066  (748–1383)^a^,^c
HMB, μmol/L	1.85  (1.46–2.24)	1.62  (1.33–1.91)^a	4.74  (3.79–5.70)^b	4.0  (3.36–4.65)^a^,^b	4.57  (3.53–5.61)^c	3.82  (2.98–4.65)^a^,^c
REE, kcal/d	1793  (1573–2013)	1818  (1638–1999)	1837  (1619–2056)	1816  (1609–2022)	1922  (1745–2099)^d	1909  (1734–2085)^d
RQ	0.84  (0.79–0.89)	0.88  (0.81–0.94)	0.76  (0.73–0.78)^b	0.73  (0.71–0.76)^b	0.76  (0.72–0.79)^c	0.76  (0.70–0.82)^c
POX, mg/kg/min	0.82  (66–98)	0.77  (0.62–0.91)	0.75  (0.60–0.90)	0.69  (0.44–0.94)	0.75  (0.67–0.83)	0.78  (0.62–0.93)
GOX, mg/kg/min	1.1  (0.58–1.57)	1.54  (0.73–2.36)	0.24  (−0.1 to 0.54)^b	−0.01  (−0.26 to 0.23)^b	0.24  (−0.23 to 0.70)^c	0.34  (−0.47 to 1.16)^c
NOGD, mg/kg/min	0.11  (−0.44 to 0.65)	1.56  (0.31–2.81)^a	0.68  (0.36–1.0)^f	1.61  (1.25–2.0)^a^,^f	0.68  (0.32–1.0)	1.41  (0.47–2.35)^a
LIPOX, mg/kg/min	0.47  (0.23–0.72)	0.34  (0.02–0.66)	0.93  (0.78–1.09)^b	1.03  (0.82–1.24)^b	1.02  (0.78–1.26)^c	0.95  (0.61–1.29)^c
UNSR, g/d	18  (14–22)	17  (14–20)	16  (13–18)	14  (10–19)	16  (14–18)	16  (13–19)

	Control		Fasting		Fasting Plus GHA
	Basal	HEC	Basal	HEC	Basal	HEC
Glucose, mmol/L	5.2  (4.8–5.5)	4.6  (4.4–4.9)^a	3.9  (3.6–4.2)^b	4.9  (4.7–5.1)^a	3.9  (3.6–4.2)^c	5.0  (4.8–5.1)^a
Insulin, pmol/L	43  (30–61)	297  (231–382)^a	23  (17–30)^b	254  (177–364)^a	23  (15–34)^c	350  (267–460)^a
C-peptide, pmol/L	368  (258–479)	264  (163–366)^a	177  (128–225)^b	252  (151–353)^a	224  (137–312)^c	305  (230–380)^a
Glucagon, ng/L	67  (45–90)	48  (36–59)^a	93  (73–113)^b	58  (39–77)^a^,^b	85  (72–97)^c	48  (36–60)^a
Cortisol, nmol/L	86  (58–127)	70  (49–101)	91  (62–132)^b	119  (79–178)^b	86  (59–124)	77  (55–107)
NE, pg/mL	132  (88–175)	159  (116–202)	246  (134–358)^b	213  (150–275)^b	213  (130–296)^d	200  (136–263)^d
EPI, pg/mL	35 (25–48)	47 (35–63)^a	43 (31–60)	49 (39–61)^a	35 (25–47)	44 (31–61)^a
FFA, mmol/L	0.38  (0.26–0.50)	0.03  (0.01–0.06)^a	0.85  (0.73–0.97)^b	0.29  (0.19–0.39)^a^,^b	0.91  (0.75–1.1)^c	0.21  (0.1–0.32)^a^,^d
Palmitate, μmol/L	113  (78–148)	18  (11–24)^a	327  (289–365)^b	101  (67–136)^a^,^b	316  (254–377)^c	81  (48–114)^a^,^c
BHB, μmol/L	37.3  (12.4–62.1)	9.1  (2.1–16)^e	2137  (1486–2787)^b	1235  (807–1663)^a^,^b	2151  (1525–2778)^c	1066  (748–1383)^a^,^c
HMB, μmol/L	1.85  (1.46–2.24)	1.62  (1.33–1.91)^a	4.74  (3.79–5.70)^b	4.0  (3.36–4.65)^a^,^b	4.57  (3.53–5.61)^c	3.82  (2.98–4.65)^a^,^c
REE, kcal/d	1793  (1573–2013)	1818  (1638–1999)	1837  (1619–2056)	1816  (1609–2022)	1922  (1745–2099)^d	1909  (1734–2085)^d
RQ	0.84  (0.79–0.89)	0.88  (0.81–0.94)	0.76  (0.73–0.78)^b	0.73  (0.71–0.76)^b	0.76  (0.72–0.79)^c	0.76  (0.70–0.82)^c
POX, mg/kg/min	0.82  (66–98)	0.77  (0.62–0.91)	0.75  (0.60–0.90)	0.69  (0.44–0.94)	0.75  (0.67–0.83)	0.78  (0.62–0.93)
GOX, mg/kg/min	1.1  (0.58–1.57)	1.54  (0.73–2.36)	0.24  (−0.1 to 0.54)^b	−0.01  (−0.26 to 0.23)^b	0.24  (−0.23 to 0.70)^c	0.34  (−0.47 to 1.16)^c
NOGD, mg/kg/min	0.11  (−0.44 to 0.65)	1.56  (0.31–2.81)^a	0.68  (0.36–1.0)^f	1.61  (1.25–2.0)^a^,^f	0.68  (0.32–1.0)	1.41  (0.47–2.35)^a
LIPOX, mg/kg/min	0.47  (0.23–0.72)	0.34  (0.02–0.66)	0.93  (0.78–1.09)^b	1.03  (0.82–1.24)^b	1.02  (0.78–1.26)^c	0.95  (0.61–1.29)^c
UNSR, g/d	18  (14–22)	17  (14–20)	16  (13–18)	14  (10–19)	16  (14–18)	16  (13–19)

All values are presented as (geometric) mean (95% confidence interval) in the basal period and the HEC. P values are based on post hoc statistics.

Abbreviations: EPI, epinephrine; GOX, glucose oxidation; LIPOX, lipid oxidation, NE, norepinephrine; POX, protein oxidation; UNSR, urinary nitrogen excretion rate.

P < 0.01 for basal period vs HEC.

P < 0.01 for control vs fasting.

P < 0.01 for control vs fasting plus GHA.

P < 0.05 for control vs fasting plus GHA.

P < 0.05 for basal period vs HEC.

P < 0.05 for control vs fasting.

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