Characteristics of Patients and Standardized Mean Differences for Baseline Covariates Before and After Propensity Score Matching
| . | Before Matching . | After Matching . | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Variable . | Noninitiators . | Initiators . | SMD . | Noninitiators . | Initiators . | SMD . |
| Treatment group | 319 267 (100) | 53 959 (100) | 53 449 (100) | 53 449 (100) | ||
| Died | 48 320 (15.13) | 7990 (14.81) | 8428 (15.77) | 7871 (14.73) | ||
| Invasive ventilation | 6503 (2.04) | 2358 (4.37) | 2290 (4.28) | 2290 (4.28) | ||
| Noninvasive supplemental oxygen | 41 094 (12.87) | 21 586 (40) | 21 187 (39.64) | 21 310 (39.87) | ||
| Invasive ventilation | 6503 (2.04) | 2358 (4.37) | 2290 (4.28) | 2290 (4.28) | ||
| Female | 161 285 (50.52) | 26 888 (49.83) | 0.014 | 26 608 (49.78) | 26 655 (49.87) | 0.002 |
| Age at admission, y | 64.95 (18.3) | 67.91 (16.21) | 0.182 | 68.07 (16.22) | 67.91 (16.22) | 0.01 |
| Race/ethnicity | ||||||
| Native Hawaiian and Pacific Islander | 2494 (0.78) | 476 (0.88) | 0.011 | 375 (0.7) | 474 (0.89) | 0.02 |
| White | 195 696 (61.3) | 34 680 (64.27) | 0.062 | 34 129 (63.85) | 34 349 (64.27) | 0.009 |
| Hispanic or Latino | 30 329 (9.5) | 5180 (9.6) | 0.003 | 5188 (9.71) | 5145 (9.63) | 0.003 |
| American Indian and Alaska native | 2090 (0.65) | 428 (0.79) | 0.016 | 476 (0.89) | 426 (0.8) | 0.011 |
| Black | 65 541 (20.53) | 9697 (17.97) | 0.067 | 9911 (18.54) | 9584 (17.93) | 0.016 |
| Asian | 8855 (2.77) | 1752 (3.25) | 0.027 | 1637 (3.06) | 1733 (3.24) | 0.01 |
| Total visits at health care center | 77.98 (92.95) | 95.44 (116.44) | 0.15 | 96.63 (116.25) | 95.12 (116.13) | 0.013 |
| Total hospitalizations | 2.77 (3.78) | 2.55 (3.95) | 0.057 | 2.58 (3.94) | 2.54 (3.93) | 0.011 |
| Days in health system | 1142.47 (444.76) | 1168.44 (473.29) | 0.055 | 1175.26 (473.68) | 1168.09 (473.93) | 0.015 |
| CCI score | 3.71 (3.2) | 3.89 (3.18) | 0.056 | 3.96 (3.17) | 3.88 (3.18) | 0.026 |
| Vaccinated | 84 257 (26.39) | 14 199 (26.31) | 0.002 | 14 020 (26.23) | 14 020 (26.23) | <0.001 |
| Vaccine dose number | 0.63 (1.16) | 0.63 (1.18) | 0.006 | 0.63 (1.17) | 0.63 (1.18) | 0.004 |
| Prebaseline exposure to low-flow oxygen | 42 828 (13.41) | 11 036 (20.45) | 0.174 | 10 788 (20.18) | 10 870 (20.34) | 0.004 |
| Prebaseline exposure to high-flow oxygen | 71 176 (22.29) | 18 306 (33.93) | 0.246 | 18 189 (34.03) | 18 042 (33.76) | 0.006 |
| Prebaseline exposure to invasive ventilation | 28 786 (9.02) | 4134 (7.66) | 0.051 | 4049 (7.58) | 4057 (7.59) | <0.001 |
| Prebaseline exposure to noninvasive supplemental oxygen | 84 546 (26.48) | 21 166 (39.23) | 0.261 | 20 816 (38.95) | 20 865 (39.04) | 0.002 |
| Prebaseline exposure to invasive ventilation | 28 786 (9.02) | 4134 (7.66) | 0.051 | 4049 (7.58) | 4057 (7.59) | <0.001 |
| BMI category | ||||||
| Underweight | 10 583 (3.31) | 1536 (2.85) | 0.028 | 1562 (2.92) | 1520 (2.84) | 0.005 |
| Normal weight | 59 532 (18.65) | 9311 (17.26) | 0.037 | 9274 (17.35) | 9234 (17.28) | 0.002 |
| Overweight | 65 083 (20.39) | 12 116 (22.45) | 0.05 | 12 173 (22.77) | 11 984 (22.42) | 0.008 |
| Obese | 73 506 (23.02) | 15 517 (28.76) | 0.127 | 15 329 (28.68) | 15 352 (28.72) | <0.001 |
| Obese class 3 | 28 356 (8.88) | 6763 (12.53) | 0.11 | 6857 (12.83) | 6701 (12.54) | 0.009 |
| Missing BMI | 82 207 (25.75) | 8716 (16.15) | 0.261 | 8254 (15.44) | 8658 (16.2) | 0.021 |
| Multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children | 78 (0.02) | <20a | 0.006 | <20 | <20 | 0.006 |
| Pneumonia due to COVID-19 | 51 324 (16.08) | 11 896 (22.05) | 0.144 | 11 201 (20.96) | 11 661 (21.82) | 0.021 |
| Obesity | 158 453 (49.63) | 31 312 (58.03) | 0.17 | 31 256 (58.48) | 30 992 (57.98) | 0.01 |
| Pregnancy | 11 864 (3.72) | 847 (1.57) | 0.173 | 846 (1.58) | 838 (1.57) | 0.001 |
| Tobacco smoker | 61 901 (19.39) | 11 007 (20.4) | 0.025 | 11 132 (20.83) | 10 903 (20.4) | 0.011 |
| Renal replacement therapy | 2849 (0.89) | 352 (0.65) | 0.03 | 363 (0.68) | 350 (0.65) | 0.003 |
| Solid organ or blood stem cell transplant | 4136 (1.3) | 1199 (2.22) | 0.063 | 1300 (2.43) | 1186 (2.22) | 0.014 |
| Cardiomyopathies | 38 820 (12.16) | 6881 (12.75) | 0.018 | 7062 (13.21) | 6800 (12.72) | 0.015 |
| Cerebrovascular disease | 51 309 (16.07) | 9248 (17.14) | 0.028 | 9130 (17.08) | 9136 (17.09) | <0.001 |
| Chronic lung disease | 118 183 (37.02) | 23 848 (44.2) | 0.145 | 23 798 (44.52) | 23 590 (44.14) | 0.008 |
| Congestive heart failure | 76 489 (23.96) | 14 127 (26.18) | 0.051 | 14 207 (26.58) | 13 960 (26.12) | 0.011 |
| Coronary artery disease | 88 610 (27.75) | 16 565 (30.7) | 0.064 | 16 701 (31.25) | 16 373 (30.63) | 0.013 |
| Dementia | 37 361 (11.7) | 5996 (11.11) | 0.019 | 5930 (11.09) | 5931 (11.1) | <0.001 |
| Depression | 86 762 (27.18) | 14 667 (27.18) | <0.001 | 14 607 (27.33) | 14 511 (27.15) | 0.004 |
| Diabetes mellitus–complicated | 105 102 (32.92) | 18 113 (33.57) | 0.014 | 18 198 (34.05) | 17 907 (33.5) | 0.012 |
| Diabetes mellitus–uncomplicated | 127 848 (40.04) | 22 237 (41.21) | 0.024 | 22 427 (41.96) | 22 002 (41.16) | 0.016 |
| Down syndrome | 82 (0.03) | <20 | 0.004 | <20 | <20 | <0.001 |
| Asthma | 40 179 (12.58) | 8011 (14.85) | 0.064 | 8083 (15.12) | 7921 (14.82) | 0.009 |
| Chronic kidney disease | 105 190 (32.95) | 17 773 (32.94) | <0.001 | 18 556 (34.72) | 17 559 (32.85) | 0.04 |
| Hematologic cancer | 11 515 (3.61) | 2706 (5.01) | 0.065 | 2683 (5.02) | 2675 (5) | <0.001 |
| Heart failure | 95 752 (29.99) | 17 507 (32.45) | 0.052 | 17 516 (32.77) | 17 302 (32.37) | 0.009 |
| Hemiplegia or paraplegia | 20 901 (6.55) | 3242 (6.01) | 0.023 | 3266 (6.11) | 3204 (5.99) | 0.005 |
| HIV infection | 3562 (1.12) | 503 (0.93) | 0.019 | 490 (0.92) | 500 (0.94) | 0.002 |
| Hypertension | 225 584 (70.66) | 40 491 (75.04) | 0.101 | 40 575 (75.91) | 40 079 (74.99) | 0.021 |
| Kidney disease | 112 052 (35.1) | 18 852 (34.94) | 0.003 | 19 664 (36.79) | 18 623 (34.84) | 0.041 |
| Malignant cancer | 58 891 (18.45) | 11 900 (22.05) | 0.087 | 11 795 (22.07) | 11 759 (22) | 0.002 |
| Metastatic solid tumor cancers | 4971 (1.56) | 996 (1.85) | 0.021 | 954 (1.78) | 983 (1.84) | 0.004 |
| Mild liver disease | 39 566 (12.39) | 6323 (11.72) | 0.021 | 6240 (11.67) | 6260 (11.71) | 0.001 |
| Moderate to severe liver disease | 17 087 (5.35) | 2152 (3.99) | 0.07 | 2197 (4.11) | 2120 (3.97) | 0.007 |
| Myocardial infarction | 52 084 (16.31) | 9278 (17.19) | 0.023 | 9328 (17.45) | 9164 (17.15) | 0.008 |
| Other immuno-compromised condition | 64 014 (20.05) | 12 617 (23.38) | 0.079 | 12 776 (23.9) | 12 442 (23.28) | 0.015 |
| Peptic ulcer | 14 917 (4.67) | 2463 (4.56) | 0.005 | 2578 (4.82) | 2428 (4.54) | 0.013 |
| Peripheral vascular disease | 47 507 (14.88) | 8421 (15.61) | 0.02 | 8331 (15.59) | 8313 (15.55) | <0.001 |
| Psychosis | 17 062 (5.34) | 1576 (2.92) | 0.144 | 1583 (2.96) | 1553 (2.91) | 0.003 |
| Pulmonary embolism | 17 470 (5.47) | 3286 (6.09) | 0.026 | 3405 (6.37) | 3237 (6.06) | 0.013 |
| Rheumatologic disease | 47 085 (14.75) | 9287 (17.21) | 0.065 | 9863 (18.45) | 9182 (17.18) | 0.034 |
| Sickle cell disease | 2027 (0.63) | 308 (0.57) | 0.009 | 239 (0.45) | 304 (0.57) | 0.016 |
| Stroke | 39 823 (12.47) | 6134 (11.37) | 0.035 | 6009 (11.24) | 6070 (11.36) | 0.004 |
| Substance abuse | 36 740 (11.51) | 4009 (7.43) | 0.155 | 4088 (7.65) | 3968 (7.42) | 0.009 |
| Thalassemia | 544 (0.17) | 102 (0.19) | 0.004 | 104 (0.19) | 101 (0.19) | 0.001 |
| Tuberculosis | 768 (0.24) | 137 (0.25) | 0.003 | 150 (0.28) | 136 (0.25) | 0.005 |
| Adalimumab | 1310 (0.41) | 240 (0.44) | 0.005 | 234 (0.44) | 238 (0.45) | 0.001 |
| Anakinra | 200 (0.06) | 40 (0.07) | 0.004 | 54 (0.1) | 38 (0.07) | 0.011 |
| Antibiotics | 227 214 (71.17) | 40 371 (74.82) | 0.084 | 40 326 (75.45) | 39 926 (74.7) | 0.017 |
| Anticoagulants | 157 982 (49.48) | 27 474 (50.92) | 0.029 | 27 547 (51.54) | 27 131 (50.76) | 0.016 |
| Azithromycin | 76 366 (23.92) | 15 838 (29.35) | 0.119 | 15 565 (29.12) | 15 624 (29.23) | 0.002 |
| Baricitinib | 2316 (0.73) | 89 (0.16) | 0.138 | 85 (0.16) | 85 (0.16) | <0.001 |
| Bebtelovimab | 722 (0.23) | 52 (0.1) | 0.042 | 91 (0.17) | 49 (0.09) | 0.026 |
| Benzodiazepines | 91 536 (28.67) | 15 213 (28.19) | 0.011 | 14 994 (28.05) | 15 015 (28.09) | <0.001 |
| Bupropion | 15 539 (4.87) | 2696 (5) | 0.006 | 2561 (4.79) | 2654 (4.97) | 0.008 |
| Casirivimab/imdevimab | 990 (0.31) | 125 (0.23) | 0.016 | 133 (0.25) | 119 (0.22) | 0.006 |
| Certolizumab | 95 (0.03) | 31 (0.06) | 0.012 | 26 (0.05) | 31 (0.06) | 0.004 |
| Chlorpromazine | 1946 (0.61) | 224 (0.42) | 0.03 | 206 (0.39) | 220 (0.41) | 0.004 |
| Citalopram | 12 276 (3.85) | 2049 (3.8) | 0.002 | 2174 (4.07) | 2026 (3.79) | 0.014 |
| Corticosteroids | 161 781 (50.67) | 32 533 (60.29) | 0.197 | 32 589 (60.97) | 32 139 (60.13) | 0.017 |
| Dexamethasone | 95 658 (29.96) | 19 921 (36.92) | 0.144 | 19 435 (36.36) | 19 631 (36.73) | 0.008 |
| Dextromethorphan | 24 764 (7.76) | 5065 (9.39) | 0.056 | 5067 (9.48) | 4982 (9.32) | 0.005 |
| Infliximab | 645 (0.2) | 141 (0.26) | 0.012 | 112 (0.21) | 138 (0.26) | 0.01 |
| Escitalopram | 20 412 (6.39) | 3313 (6.14) | 0.011 | 3170 (5.93) | 3269 (6.12) | 0.008 |
| Etanrecept | 429 (0.13) | 101 (0.19) | 0.012 | 131 (0.25) | 99 (0.19) | 0.014 |
| Evusheld | 550 (0.17) | 239 (0.44) | 0.041 | 227 (0.42) | 238 (0.45) | 0.003 |
| Fluoxetine | 13 026 (4.08) | 1892 (3.51) | 0.031 | 1950 (3.65) | 1879 (3.52) | 0.007 |
| Fluphenazine | 695 (0.22) | 42 (0.08) | 0.05 | 52 (0.1) | 42 (0.08) | 0.007 |
| Fluvoxamine | 398 (0.12) | 62 (0.11) | 0.003 | 62 (0.12) | 60 (0.11) | 0.001 |
| Glucocorticoids | 182 591 (57.19) | 35 835 (66.41) | 0.195 | 35 768 (66.92) | 35 419 (66.27) | 0.014 |
| Golimumab | 104 (0.03) | 26 (0.05) | 0.007 | 32 (0.06) | 26 (0.05) | 0.005 |
| Haloperidol | 35 668 (11.17) | 5798 (10.75) | 0.014 | 5801 (10.85) | 5724 (10.71) | 0.005 |
| Heparin | 119 676 (37.48) | 21 225 (39.34) | 0.038 | 21 429 (40.09) | 20 951 (39.2) | 0.018 |
| Hydrocortisone | 18 402 (5.76) | 3623 (6.71) | 0.038 | 3637 (6.8) | 3577 (6.69) | 0.004 |
| Hydroxychloroquine | 4983 (1.56) | 1006 (1.86) | 0.022 | 999 (1.87) | 996 (1.86) | <0.001 |
| Hydroxyzine | 37 241 (11.66) | 5246 (9.72) | 0.066 | 5228 (9.78) | 5182 (9.7) | 0.003 |
| Immunosuppressants | 38 723 (12.13) | 8735 (16.19) | 0.11 | 8906 (16.66) | 8620 (16.13) | 0.015 |
| Ivermectin | 1085 (0.34) | 208 (0.39) | 0.007 | 245 (0.46) | 207 (0.39) | 0.011 |
| Methylprednisolone | 58 203 (18.23) | 12 472 (23.11) | 0.116 | 12 631 (23.63) | 12 334 (23.08) | 0.013 |
| Molnupiravir | 486 (0.15) | 95 (0.18) | 0.006 | 100 (0.19) | 94 (0.18) | 0.003 |
| Paroxetine | 5396 (1.69) | 891 (1.65) | 0.003 | 819 (1.53) | 880 (1.65) | 0.009 |
| Paxlovid | 2411 (0.76) | 330 (0.61) | 0.018 | 425 (0.8) | 324 (0.61) | 0.024 |
| Pentazocine | <20 | <20 | 0.006 | <20 | <20 | 0.004 |
| Perphenazine | 371 (0.12) | 27 (0.05) | 0.03 | 32 (0.06) | 26 (0.05) | 0.005 |
| Pimozide | 22 (0.01) | <20 | <0.001 | <20 | <20 | 0.009 |
| Prednisone | 76 893 (24.08) | 17 053 (31.6) | 0.162 | 17 317 (32.4) | 16 873 (31.57) | 0.018 |
| Quinolones | 72 778 (22.8) | 14 231 (26.37) | 0.081 | 14 373 (26.89) | 14 069 (26.32) | 0.013 |
| Sarilumab | 96 (0.03) | <20 | 0.015 | <20 | <20 | 0.016 |
| Sertaline | 28 026 (8.78) | 4463 (8.27) | 0.018 | 4547 (8.51) | 4413 (8.26) | 0.009 |
| Selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors | 32 491 (10.18) | 5724 (10.61) | 0.014 | 5755 (10.77) | 5666 (10.6) | 0.005 |
| Sotrovimab | 374 (0.12) | 40 (0.07) | 0.016 | 33 (0.06) | 38 (0.07) | 0.004 |
| Systemic corticosteroids | 168 575 (52.8) | 33 725 (62.5) | 0.2 | 33 668 (62.99) | 33 329 (62.36) | 0.013 |
| Tamoxifen | 712 (0.22) | 150 (0.28) | 0.01 | 129 (0.24) | 149 (0.28) | 0.007 |
| Tocilizumab | 2082 (0.65) | 180 (0.33) | 0.055 | 203 (0.38) | 175 (0.33) | 0.009 |
| Tofacitinib | 429 (0.13) | 93 (0.17) | 0.009 | 78 (0.15) | 92 (0.17) | 0.006 |
| Tricyclic antidepressants | 14 414 (4.51) | 2651 (4.91) | 0.018 | 2635 (4.93) | 2636 (4.93) | <0.001 |
| Trifluoperazine | 58 (0.02) | <20 | <0.001 | <20 | <20 | 0.008 |
| Upadacitinib | 127 (0.04) | <20 | 0.004 | 20 (0.04) | <20 | 0.002 |
| Vasopressors | 94 817 (29.7) | 18 292 (33.9) | 0.089 | 18 236 (34.12) | 18 043 (33.76) | 0.008 |
| Lab values | ||||||
| White blood cells–high | 55 843 (17.49) | 7283 (13.5) | 0.117 | 7291 (13.64) | 7196 (13.46) | 0.005 |
| White blood cells–low | 45880 (14.37) | 7310 (13.55) | 0.024 | 7098 (13.28) | 7191 (13.45) | 0.005 |
| White blood cells–normal | 194 476 (60.91) | 34 340 (63.64) | 0.057 | 34 265 (64.11) | 34 044 (63.69) | 0.009 |
| Lymphocytes–high | 118 532 (37.13) | 19 634 (36.39) | 0.015 | 19 754 (36.96) | 19 336 (36.18) | 0.016 |
| Lymphocytes–low | 2499 (0.78) | 512 (0.95) | 0.017 | 397 (0.74) | 511 (0.96) | 0.022 |
| Lymphocytes–normal | 161 570 (50.61) | 27 001 (50.04) | 0.011 | 26 778 (50.1) | 26 809 (50.16) | 0.001 |
| Albumin–high | 165 (0.05) | 20 (0.04) | 0.008 | <20 | 20 (0.04) | 0.006 |
| Albumin–low | 111 488 (34.92) | 12 510 (23.18) | 0.278 | 12 372 (23.15) | 12 312 (23.04) | 0.003 |
| Albumin–normal | 173 297 (54.28) | 34 186 (63.36) | 0.188 | 34 282 (64.14) | 33 903 (63.43) | 0.015 |
| Alanine aminotransferase–high | 31 013 (9.71) | 3621 (6.71) | 0.12 | 3505 (6.56) | 3565 (6.67) | 0.004 |
| Alanine aminotransferase–low | 10 182 (3.19) | 1248 (2.31) | 0.058 | 1264 (2.36) | 1236 (2.31) | 0.003 |
| Alanine aminotransferase–normal | 250 516 (78.47) | 41 916 (77.68) | 0.019 | 41 941 (78.47) | 41 502 (77.65) | 0.02 |
| Estimated glomerular filtration rate–low | 45 827 (14.35) | 5290 (9.8) | 0.153 | 5733 (10.73) | 5236 (9.8) | 0.031 |
| Estimated glomerular filtration rate–normal | 232 042 (72.68) | 40 147 (74.4) | 0.039 | 39 499 (73.9) | 39 719 (74.31) | 0.009 |
| Platelets–high | 9247 (2.9) | 1096 (2.03) | 0.061 | 1118 (2.09) | 1088 (2.04) | 0.004 |
| Platelets–low | 65 088 (20.39) | 9921 (18.39) | 0.052 | 10 039 (18.78) | 9771 (18.28) | 0.013 |
| Platelets–normal | 227 509 (71.26) | 37 798 (70.05) | 0.026 | 37 341 (69.86) | 37 454 (70.07) | 0.005 |
| Creatinine–high | 8268 (2.59) | 825 (1.53) | 0.086 | 923 (1.73) | 815 (1.52) | 0.016 |
| Creatinine–low | 11 294 (3.54) | 1279 (2.37) | 0.077 | 1227 (2.3) | 1257 (2.35) | 0.004 |
| Creatinine–normal | 274 616 (86.01) | 46 859 (86.84) | 0.024 | 46 451 (86.91) | 46 390 (86.79) | 0.003 |
| Hemoglobin–high | 3951 (1.24) | 1074 (1.99) | 0.054 | 905 (1.69) | 1064 (1.99) | 0.021 |
| Hemoglobin–low | 168 567 (52.8) | 22 609 (41.9) | 0.221 | 22 763 (42.59) | 22 340 (41.8) | 0.016 |
| Hemoglobin–normal | 123 724 (38.75) | 25 250 (46.79) | 0.161 | 24 876 (46.54) | 25 028 (46.83) | 0.006 |
| . | Before Matching . | After Matching . | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Variable . | Noninitiators . | Initiators . | SMD . | Noninitiators . | Initiators . | SMD . |
| Treatment group | 319 267 (100) | 53 959 (100) | 53 449 (100) | 53 449 (100) | ||
| Died | 48 320 (15.13) | 7990 (14.81) | 8428 (15.77) | 7871 (14.73) | ||
| Invasive ventilation | 6503 (2.04) | 2358 (4.37) | 2290 (4.28) | 2290 (4.28) | ||
| Noninvasive supplemental oxygen | 41 094 (12.87) | 21 586 (40) | 21 187 (39.64) | 21 310 (39.87) | ||
| Invasive ventilation | 6503 (2.04) | 2358 (4.37) | 2290 (4.28) | 2290 (4.28) | ||
| Female | 161 285 (50.52) | 26 888 (49.83) | 0.014 | 26 608 (49.78) | 26 655 (49.87) | 0.002 |
| Age at admission, y | 64.95 (18.3) | 67.91 (16.21) | 0.182 | 68.07 (16.22) | 67.91 (16.22) | 0.01 |
| Race/ethnicity | ||||||
| Native Hawaiian and Pacific Islander | 2494 (0.78) | 476 (0.88) | 0.011 | 375 (0.7) | 474 (0.89) | 0.02 |
| White | 195 696 (61.3) | 34 680 (64.27) | 0.062 | 34 129 (63.85) | 34 349 (64.27) | 0.009 |
| Hispanic or Latino | 30 329 (9.5) | 5180 (9.6) | 0.003 | 5188 (9.71) | 5145 (9.63) | 0.003 |
| American Indian and Alaska native | 2090 (0.65) | 428 (0.79) | 0.016 | 476 (0.89) | 426 (0.8) | 0.011 |
| Black | 65 541 (20.53) | 9697 (17.97) | 0.067 | 9911 (18.54) | 9584 (17.93) | 0.016 |
| Asian | 8855 (2.77) | 1752 (3.25) | 0.027 | 1637 (3.06) | 1733 (3.24) | 0.01 |
| Total visits at health care center | 77.98 (92.95) | 95.44 (116.44) | 0.15 | 96.63 (116.25) | 95.12 (116.13) | 0.013 |
| Total hospitalizations | 2.77 (3.78) | 2.55 (3.95) | 0.057 | 2.58 (3.94) | 2.54 (3.93) | 0.011 |
| Days in health system | 1142.47 (444.76) | 1168.44 (473.29) | 0.055 | 1175.26 (473.68) | 1168.09 (473.93) | 0.015 |
| CCI score | 3.71 (3.2) | 3.89 (3.18) | 0.056 | 3.96 (3.17) | 3.88 (3.18) | 0.026 |
| Vaccinated | 84 257 (26.39) | 14 199 (26.31) | 0.002 | 14 020 (26.23) | 14 020 (26.23) | <0.001 |
| Vaccine dose number | 0.63 (1.16) | 0.63 (1.18) | 0.006 | 0.63 (1.17) | 0.63 (1.18) | 0.004 |
| Prebaseline exposure to low-flow oxygen | 42 828 (13.41) | 11 036 (20.45) | 0.174 | 10 788 (20.18) | 10 870 (20.34) | 0.004 |
| Prebaseline exposure to high-flow oxygen | 71 176 (22.29) | 18 306 (33.93) | 0.246 | 18 189 (34.03) | 18 042 (33.76) | 0.006 |
| Prebaseline exposure to invasive ventilation | 28 786 (9.02) | 4134 (7.66) | 0.051 | 4049 (7.58) | 4057 (7.59) | <0.001 |
| Prebaseline exposure to noninvasive supplemental oxygen | 84 546 (26.48) | 21 166 (39.23) | 0.261 | 20 816 (38.95) | 20 865 (39.04) | 0.002 |
| Prebaseline exposure to invasive ventilation | 28 786 (9.02) | 4134 (7.66) | 0.051 | 4049 (7.58) | 4057 (7.59) | <0.001 |
| BMI category | ||||||
| Underweight | 10 583 (3.31) | 1536 (2.85) | 0.028 | 1562 (2.92) | 1520 (2.84) | 0.005 |
| Normal weight | 59 532 (18.65) | 9311 (17.26) | 0.037 | 9274 (17.35) | 9234 (17.28) | 0.002 |
| Overweight | 65 083 (20.39) | 12 116 (22.45) | 0.05 | 12 173 (22.77) | 11 984 (22.42) | 0.008 |
| Obese | 73 506 (23.02) | 15 517 (28.76) | 0.127 | 15 329 (28.68) | 15 352 (28.72) | <0.001 |
| Obese class 3 | 28 356 (8.88) | 6763 (12.53) | 0.11 | 6857 (12.83) | 6701 (12.54) | 0.009 |
| Missing BMI | 82 207 (25.75) | 8716 (16.15) | 0.261 | 8254 (15.44) | 8658 (16.2) | 0.021 |
| Multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children | 78 (0.02) | <20a | 0.006 | <20 | <20 | 0.006 |
| Pneumonia due to COVID-19 | 51 324 (16.08) | 11 896 (22.05) | 0.144 | 11 201 (20.96) | 11 661 (21.82) | 0.021 |
| Obesity | 158 453 (49.63) | 31 312 (58.03) | 0.17 | 31 256 (58.48) | 30 992 (57.98) | 0.01 |
| Pregnancy | 11 864 (3.72) | 847 (1.57) | 0.173 | 846 (1.58) | 838 (1.57) | 0.001 |
| Tobacco smoker | 61 901 (19.39) | 11 007 (20.4) | 0.025 | 11 132 (20.83) | 10 903 (20.4) | 0.011 |
| Renal replacement therapy | 2849 (0.89) | 352 (0.65) | 0.03 | 363 (0.68) | 350 (0.65) | 0.003 |
| Solid organ or blood stem cell transplant | 4136 (1.3) | 1199 (2.22) | 0.063 | 1300 (2.43) | 1186 (2.22) | 0.014 |
| Cardiomyopathies | 38 820 (12.16) | 6881 (12.75) | 0.018 | 7062 (13.21) | 6800 (12.72) | 0.015 |
| Cerebrovascular disease | 51 309 (16.07) | 9248 (17.14) | 0.028 | 9130 (17.08) | 9136 (17.09) | <0.001 |
| Chronic lung disease | 118 183 (37.02) | 23 848 (44.2) | 0.145 | 23 798 (44.52) | 23 590 (44.14) | 0.008 |
| Congestive heart failure | 76 489 (23.96) | 14 127 (26.18) | 0.051 | 14 207 (26.58) | 13 960 (26.12) | 0.011 |
| Coronary artery disease | 88 610 (27.75) | 16 565 (30.7) | 0.064 | 16 701 (31.25) | 16 373 (30.63) | 0.013 |
| Dementia | 37 361 (11.7) | 5996 (11.11) | 0.019 | 5930 (11.09) | 5931 (11.1) | <0.001 |
| Depression | 86 762 (27.18) | 14 667 (27.18) | <0.001 | 14 607 (27.33) | 14 511 (27.15) | 0.004 |
| Diabetes mellitus–complicated | 105 102 (32.92) | 18 113 (33.57) | 0.014 | 18 198 (34.05) | 17 907 (33.5) | 0.012 |
| Diabetes mellitus–uncomplicated | 127 848 (40.04) | 22 237 (41.21) | 0.024 | 22 427 (41.96) | 22 002 (41.16) | 0.016 |
| Down syndrome | 82 (0.03) | <20 | 0.004 | <20 | <20 | <0.001 |
| Asthma | 40 179 (12.58) | 8011 (14.85) | 0.064 | 8083 (15.12) | 7921 (14.82) | 0.009 |
| Chronic kidney disease | 105 190 (32.95) | 17 773 (32.94) | <0.001 | 18 556 (34.72) | 17 559 (32.85) | 0.04 |
| Hematologic cancer | 11 515 (3.61) | 2706 (5.01) | 0.065 | 2683 (5.02) | 2675 (5) | <0.001 |
| Heart failure | 95 752 (29.99) | 17 507 (32.45) | 0.052 | 17 516 (32.77) | 17 302 (32.37) | 0.009 |
| Hemiplegia or paraplegia | 20 901 (6.55) | 3242 (6.01) | 0.023 | 3266 (6.11) | 3204 (5.99) | 0.005 |
| HIV infection | 3562 (1.12) | 503 (0.93) | 0.019 | 490 (0.92) | 500 (0.94) | 0.002 |
| Hypertension | 225 584 (70.66) | 40 491 (75.04) | 0.101 | 40 575 (75.91) | 40 079 (74.99) | 0.021 |
| Kidney disease | 112 052 (35.1) | 18 852 (34.94) | 0.003 | 19 664 (36.79) | 18 623 (34.84) | 0.041 |
| Malignant cancer | 58 891 (18.45) | 11 900 (22.05) | 0.087 | 11 795 (22.07) | 11 759 (22) | 0.002 |
| Metastatic solid tumor cancers | 4971 (1.56) | 996 (1.85) | 0.021 | 954 (1.78) | 983 (1.84) | 0.004 |
| Mild liver disease | 39 566 (12.39) | 6323 (11.72) | 0.021 | 6240 (11.67) | 6260 (11.71) | 0.001 |
| Moderate to severe liver disease | 17 087 (5.35) | 2152 (3.99) | 0.07 | 2197 (4.11) | 2120 (3.97) | 0.007 |
| Myocardial infarction | 52 084 (16.31) | 9278 (17.19) | 0.023 | 9328 (17.45) | 9164 (17.15) | 0.008 |
| Other immuno-compromised condition | 64 014 (20.05) | 12 617 (23.38) | 0.079 | 12 776 (23.9) | 12 442 (23.28) | 0.015 |
| Peptic ulcer | 14 917 (4.67) | 2463 (4.56) | 0.005 | 2578 (4.82) | 2428 (4.54) | 0.013 |
| Peripheral vascular disease | 47 507 (14.88) | 8421 (15.61) | 0.02 | 8331 (15.59) | 8313 (15.55) | <0.001 |
| Psychosis | 17 062 (5.34) | 1576 (2.92) | 0.144 | 1583 (2.96) | 1553 (2.91) | 0.003 |
| Pulmonary embolism | 17 470 (5.47) | 3286 (6.09) | 0.026 | 3405 (6.37) | 3237 (6.06) | 0.013 |
| Rheumatologic disease | 47 085 (14.75) | 9287 (17.21) | 0.065 | 9863 (18.45) | 9182 (17.18) | 0.034 |
| Sickle cell disease | 2027 (0.63) | 308 (0.57) | 0.009 | 239 (0.45) | 304 (0.57) | 0.016 |
| Stroke | 39 823 (12.47) | 6134 (11.37) | 0.035 | 6009 (11.24) | 6070 (11.36) | 0.004 |
| Substance abuse | 36 740 (11.51) | 4009 (7.43) | 0.155 | 4088 (7.65) | 3968 (7.42) | 0.009 |
| Thalassemia | 544 (0.17) | 102 (0.19) | 0.004 | 104 (0.19) | 101 (0.19) | 0.001 |
| Tuberculosis | 768 (0.24) | 137 (0.25) | 0.003 | 150 (0.28) | 136 (0.25) | 0.005 |
| Adalimumab | 1310 (0.41) | 240 (0.44) | 0.005 | 234 (0.44) | 238 (0.45) | 0.001 |
| Anakinra | 200 (0.06) | 40 (0.07) | 0.004 | 54 (0.1) | 38 (0.07) | 0.011 |
| Antibiotics | 227 214 (71.17) | 40 371 (74.82) | 0.084 | 40 326 (75.45) | 39 926 (74.7) | 0.017 |
| Anticoagulants | 157 982 (49.48) | 27 474 (50.92) | 0.029 | 27 547 (51.54) | 27 131 (50.76) | 0.016 |
| Azithromycin | 76 366 (23.92) | 15 838 (29.35) | 0.119 | 15 565 (29.12) | 15 624 (29.23) | 0.002 |
| Baricitinib | 2316 (0.73) | 89 (0.16) | 0.138 | 85 (0.16) | 85 (0.16) | <0.001 |
| Bebtelovimab | 722 (0.23) | 52 (0.1) | 0.042 | 91 (0.17) | 49 (0.09) | 0.026 |
| Benzodiazepines | 91 536 (28.67) | 15 213 (28.19) | 0.011 | 14 994 (28.05) | 15 015 (28.09) | <0.001 |
| Bupropion | 15 539 (4.87) | 2696 (5) | 0.006 | 2561 (4.79) | 2654 (4.97) | 0.008 |
| Casirivimab/imdevimab | 990 (0.31) | 125 (0.23) | 0.016 | 133 (0.25) | 119 (0.22) | 0.006 |
| Certolizumab | 95 (0.03) | 31 (0.06) | 0.012 | 26 (0.05) | 31 (0.06) | 0.004 |
| Chlorpromazine | 1946 (0.61) | 224 (0.42) | 0.03 | 206 (0.39) | 220 (0.41) | 0.004 |
| Citalopram | 12 276 (3.85) | 2049 (3.8) | 0.002 | 2174 (4.07) | 2026 (3.79) | 0.014 |
| Corticosteroids | 161 781 (50.67) | 32 533 (60.29) | 0.197 | 32 589 (60.97) | 32 139 (60.13) | 0.017 |
| Dexamethasone | 95 658 (29.96) | 19 921 (36.92) | 0.144 | 19 435 (36.36) | 19 631 (36.73) | 0.008 |
| Dextromethorphan | 24 764 (7.76) | 5065 (9.39) | 0.056 | 5067 (9.48) | 4982 (9.32) | 0.005 |
| Infliximab | 645 (0.2) | 141 (0.26) | 0.012 | 112 (0.21) | 138 (0.26) | 0.01 |
| Escitalopram | 20 412 (6.39) | 3313 (6.14) | 0.011 | 3170 (5.93) | 3269 (6.12) | 0.008 |
| Etanrecept | 429 (0.13) | 101 (0.19) | 0.012 | 131 (0.25) | 99 (0.19) | 0.014 |
| Evusheld | 550 (0.17) | 239 (0.44) | 0.041 | 227 (0.42) | 238 (0.45) | 0.003 |
| Fluoxetine | 13 026 (4.08) | 1892 (3.51) | 0.031 | 1950 (3.65) | 1879 (3.52) | 0.007 |
| Fluphenazine | 695 (0.22) | 42 (0.08) | 0.05 | 52 (0.1) | 42 (0.08) | 0.007 |
| Fluvoxamine | 398 (0.12) | 62 (0.11) | 0.003 | 62 (0.12) | 60 (0.11) | 0.001 |
| Glucocorticoids | 182 591 (57.19) | 35 835 (66.41) | 0.195 | 35 768 (66.92) | 35 419 (66.27) | 0.014 |
| Golimumab | 104 (0.03) | 26 (0.05) | 0.007 | 32 (0.06) | 26 (0.05) | 0.005 |
| Haloperidol | 35 668 (11.17) | 5798 (10.75) | 0.014 | 5801 (10.85) | 5724 (10.71) | 0.005 |
| Heparin | 119 676 (37.48) | 21 225 (39.34) | 0.038 | 21 429 (40.09) | 20 951 (39.2) | 0.018 |
| Hydrocortisone | 18 402 (5.76) | 3623 (6.71) | 0.038 | 3637 (6.8) | 3577 (6.69) | 0.004 |
| Hydroxychloroquine | 4983 (1.56) | 1006 (1.86) | 0.022 | 999 (1.87) | 996 (1.86) | <0.001 |
| Hydroxyzine | 37 241 (11.66) | 5246 (9.72) | 0.066 | 5228 (9.78) | 5182 (9.7) | 0.003 |
| Immunosuppressants | 38 723 (12.13) | 8735 (16.19) | 0.11 | 8906 (16.66) | 8620 (16.13) | 0.015 |
| Ivermectin | 1085 (0.34) | 208 (0.39) | 0.007 | 245 (0.46) | 207 (0.39) | 0.011 |
| Methylprednisolone | 58 203 (18.23) | 12 472 (23.11) | 0.116 | 12 631 (23.63) | 12 334 (23.08) | 0.013 |
| Molnupiravir | 486 (0.15) | 95 (0.18) | 0.006 | 100 (0.19) | 94 (0.18) | 0.003 |
| Paroxetine | 5396 (1.69) | 891 (1.65) | 0.003 | 819 (1.53) | 880 (1.65) | 0.009 |
| Paxlovid | 2411 (0.76) | 330 (0.61) | 0.018 | 425 (0.8) | 324 (0.61) | 0.024 |
| Pentazocine | <20 | <20 | 0.006 | <20 | <20 | 0.004 |
| Perphenazine | 371 (0.12) | 27 (0.05) | 0.03 | 32 (0.06) | 26 (0.05) | 0.005 |
| Pimozide | 22 (0.01) | <20 | <0.001 | <20 | <20 | 0.009 |
| Prednisone | 76 893 (24.08) | 17 053 (31.6) | 0.162 | 17 317 (32.4) | 16 873 (31.57) | 0.018 |
| Quinolones | 72 778 (22.8) | 14 231 (26.37) | 0.081 | 14 373 (26.89) | 14 069 (26.32) | 0.013 |
| Sarilumab | 96 (0.03) | <20 | 0.015 | <20 | <20 | 0.016 |
| Sertaline | 28 026 (8.78) | 4463 (8.27) | 0.018 | 4547 (8.51) | 4413 (8.26) | 0.009 |
| Selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors | 32 491 (10.18) | 5724 (10.61) | 0.014 | 5755 (10.77) | 5666 (10.6) | 0.005 |
| Sotrovimab | 374 (0.12) | 40 (0.07) | 0.016 | 33 (0.06) | 38 (0.07) | 0.004 |
| Systemic corticosteroids | 168 575 (52.8) | 33 725 (62.5) | 0.2 | 33 668 (62.99) | 33 329 (62.36) | 0.013 |
| Tamoxifen | 712 (0.22) | 150 (0.28) | 0.01 | 129 (0.24) | 149 (0.28) | 0.007 |
| Tocilizumab | 2082 (0.65) | 180 (0.33) | 0.055 | 203 (0.38) | 175 (0.33) | 0.009 |
| Tofacitinib | 429 (0.13) | 93 (0.17) | 0.009 | 78 (0.15) | 92 (0.17) | 0.006 |
| Tricyclic antidepressants | 14 414 (4.51) | 2651 (4.91) | 0.018 | 2635 (4.93) | 2636 (4.93) | <0.001 |
| Trifluoperazine | 58 (0.02) | <20 | <0.001 | <20 | <20 | 0.008 |
| Upadacitinib | 127 (0.04) | <20 | 0.004 | 20 (0.04) | <20 | 0.002 |
| Vasopressors | 94 817 (29.7) | 18 292 (33.9) | 0.089 | 18 236 (34.12) | 18 043 (33.76) | 0.008 |
| Lab values | ||||||
| White blood cells–high | 55 843 (17.49) | 7283 (13.5) | 0.117 | 7291 (13.64) | 7196 (13.46) | 0.005 |
| White blood cells–low | 45880 (14.37) | 7310 (13.55) | 0.024 | 7098 (13.28) | 7191 (13.45) | 0.005 |
| White blood cells–normal | 194 476 (60.91) | 34 340 (63.64) | 0.057 | 34 265 (64.11) | 34 044 (63.69) | 0.009 |
| Lymphocytes–high | 118 532 (37.13) | 19 634 (36.39) | 0.015 | 19 754 (36.96) | 19 336 (36.18) | 0.016 |
| Lymphocytes–low | 2499 (0.78) | 512 (0.95) | 0.017 | 397 (0.74) | 511 (0.96) | 0.022 |
| Lymphocytes–normal | 161 570 (50.61) | 27 001 (50.04) | 0.011 | 26 778 (50.1) | 26 809 (50.16) | 0.001 |
| Albumin–high | 165 (0.05) | 20 (0.04) | 0.008 | <20 | 20 (0.04) | 0.006 |
| Albumin–low | 111 488 (34.92) | 12 510 (23.18) | 0.278 | 12 372 (23.15) | 12 312 (23.04) | 0.003 |
| Albumin–normal | 173 297 (54.28) | 34 186 (63.36) | 0.188 | 34 282 (64.14) | 33 903 (63.43) | 0.015 |
| Alanine aminotransferase–high | 31 013 (9.71) | 3621 (6.71) | 0.12 | 3505 (6.56) | 3565 (6.67) | 0.004 |
| Alanine aminotransferase–low | 10 182 (3.19) | 1248 (2.31) | 0.058 | 1264 (2.36) | 1236 (2.31) | 0.003 |
| Alanine aminotransferase–normal | 250 516 (78.47) | 41 916 (77.68) | 0.019 | 41 941 (78.47) | 41 502 (77.65) | 0.02 |
| Estimated glomerular filtration rate–low | 45 827 (14.35) | 5290 (9.8) | 0.153 | 5733 (10.73) | 5236 (9.8) | 0.031 |
| Estimated glomerular filtration rate–normal | 232 042 (72.68) | 40 147 (74.4) | 0.039 | 39 499 (73.9) | 39 719 (74.31) | 0.009 |
| Platelets–high | 9247 (2.9) | 1096 (2.03) | 0.061 | 1118 (2.09) | 1088 (2.04) | 0.004 |
| Platelets–low | 65 088 (20.39) | 9921 (18.39) | 0.052 | 10 039 (18.78) | 9771 (18.28) | 0.013 |
| Platelets–normal | 227 509 (71.26) | 37 798 (70.05) | 0.026 | 37 341 (69.86) | 37 454 (70.07) | 0.005 |
| Creatinine–high | 8268 (2.59) | 825 (1.53) | 0.086 | 923 (1.73) | 815 (1.52) | 0.016 |
| Creatinine–low | 11 294 (3.54) | 1279 (2.37) | 0.077 | 1227 (2.3) | 1257 (2.35) | 0.004 |
| Creatinine–normal | 274 616 (86.01) | 46 859 (86.84) | 0.024 | 46 451 (86.91) | 46 390 (86.79) | 0.003 |
| Hemoglobin–high | 3951 (1.24) | 1074 (1.99) | 0.054 | 905 (1.69) | 1064 (1.99) | 0.021 |
| Hemoglobin–low | 168 567 (52.8) | 22 609 (41.9) | 0.221 | 22 763 (42.59) | 22 340 (41.8) | 0.016 |
| Hemoglobin–normal | 123 724 (38.75) | 25 250 (46.79) | 0.161 | 24 876 (46.54) | 25 028 (46.83) | 0.006 |
Abbreviations: BMI, body mass index; CCI, Charlson comorbidity index; COVID-19, coronavirus disease 2019; RDV, remdesivir; SMD, standardized mean difference.
aAs per N3C policy, counts <20 have been concealed to preserve patient privacy.
Characteristics of Patients and Standardized Mean Differences for Baseline Covariates Before and After Propensity Score Matching
| . | Before Matching . | After Matching . | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Variable . | Noninitiators . | Initiators . | SMD . | Noninitiators . | Initiators . | SMD . |
| Treatment group | 319 267 (100) | 53 959 (100) | 53 449 (100) | 53 449 (100) | ||
| Died | 48 320 (15.13) | 7990 (14.81) | 8428 (15.77) | 7871 (14.73) | ||
| Invasive ventilation | 6503 (2.04) | 2358 (4.37) | 2290 (4.28) | 2290 (4.28) | ||
| Noninvasive supplemental oxygen | 41 094 (12.87) | 21 586 (40) | 21 187 (39.64) | 21 310 (39.87) | ||
| Invasive ventilation | 6503 (2.04) | 2358 (4.37) | 2290 (4.28) | 2290 (4.28) | ||
| Female | 161 285 (50.52) | 26 888 (49.83) | 0.014 | 26 608 (49.78) | 26 655 (49.87) | 0.002 |
| Age at admission, y | 64.95 (18.3) | 67.91 (16.21) | 0.182 | 68.07 (16.22) | 67.91 (16.22) | 0.01 |
| Race/ethnicity | ||||||
| Native Hawaiian and Pacific Islander | 2494 (0.78) | 476 (0.88) | 0.011 | 375 (0.7) | 474 (0.89) | 0.02 |
| White | 195 696 (61.3) | 34 680 (64.27) | 0.062 | 34 129 (63.85) | 34 349 (64.27) | 0.009 |
| Hispanic or Latino | 30 329 (9.5) | 5180 (9.6) | 0.003 | 5188 (9.71) | 5145 (9.63) | 0.003 |
| American Indian and Alaska native | 2090 (0.65) | 428 (0.79) | 0.016 | 476 (0.89) | 426 (0.8) | 0.011 |
| Black | 65 541 (20.53) | 9697 (17.97) | 0.067 | 9911 (18.54) | 9584 (17.93) | 0.016 |
| Asian | 8855 (2.77) | 1752 (3.25) | 0.027 | 1637 (3.06) | 1733 (3.24) | 0.01 |
| Total visits at health care center | 77.98 (92.95) | 95.44 (116.44) | 0.15 | 96.63 (116.25) | 95.12 (116.13) | 0.013 |
| Total hospitalizations | 2.77 (3.78) | 2.55 (3.95) | 0.057 | 2.58 (3.94) | 2.54 (3.93) | 0.011 |
| Days in health system | 1142.47 (444.76) | 1168.44 (473.29) | 0.055 | 1175.26 (473.68) | 1168.09 (473.93) | 0.015 |
| CCI score | 3.71 (3.2) | 3.89 (3.18) | 0.056 | 3.96 (3.17) | 3.88 (3.18) | 0.026 |
| Vaccinated | 84 257 (26.39) | 14 199 (26.31) | 0.002 | 14 020 (26.23) | 14 020 (26.23) | <0.001 |
| Vaccine dose number | 0.63 (1.16) | 0.63 (1.18) | 0.006 | 0.63 (1.17) | 0.63 (1.18) | 0.004 |
| Prebaseline exposure to low-flow oxygen | 42 828 (13.41) | 11 036 (20.45) | 0.174 | 10 788 (20.18) | 10 870 (20.34) | 0.004 |
| Prebaseline exposure to high-flow oxygen | 71 176 (22.29) | 18 306 (33.93) | 0.246 | 18 189 (34.03) | 18 042 (33.76) | 0.006 |
| Prebaseline exposure to invasive ventilation | 28 786 (9.02) | 4134 (7.66) | 0.051 | 4049 (7.58) | 4057 (7.59) | <0.001 |
| Prebaseline exposure to noninvasive supplemental oxygen | 84 546 (26.48) | 21 166 (39.23) | 0.261 | 20 816 (38.95) | 20 865 (39.04) | 0.002 |
| Prebaseline exposure to invasive ventilation | 28 786 (9.02) | 4134 (7.66) | 0.051 | 4049 (7.58) | 4057 (7.59) | <0.001 |
| BMI category | ||||||
| Underweight | 10 583 (3.31) | 1536 (2.85) | 0.028 | 1562 (2.92) | 1520 (2.84) | 0.005 |
| Normal weight | 59 532 (18.65) | 9311 (17.26) | 0.037 | 9274 (17.35) | 9234 (17.28) | 0.002 |
| Overweight | 65 083 (20.39) | 12 116 (22.45) | 0.05 | 12 173 (22.77) | 11 984 (22.42) | 0.008 |
| Obese | 73 506 (23.02) | 15 517 (28.76) | 0.127 | 15 329 (28.68) | 15 352 (28.72) | <0.001 |
| Obese class 3 | 28 356 (8.88) | 6763 (12.53) | 0.11 | 6857 (12.83) | 6701 (12.54) | 0.009 |
| Missing BMI | 82 207 (25.75) | 8716 (16.15) | 0.261 | 8254 (15.44) | 8658 (16.2) | 0.021 |
| Multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children | 78 (0.02) | <20a | 0.006 | <20 | <20 | 0.006 |
| Pneumonia due to COVID-19 | 51 324 (16.08) | 11 896 (22.05) | 0.144 | 11 201 (20.96) | 11 661 (21.82) | 0.021 |
| Obesity | 158 453 (49.63) | 31 312 (58.03) | 0.17 | 31 256 (58.48) | 30 992 (57.98) | 0.01 |
| Pregnancy | 11 864 (3.72) | 847 (1.57) | 0.173 | 846 (1.58) | 838 (1.57) | 0.001 |
| Tobacco smoker | 61 901 (19.39) | 11 007 (20.4) | 0.025 | 11 132 (20.83) | 10 903 (20.4) | 0.011 |
| Renal replacement therapy | 2849 (0.89) | 352 (0.65) | 0.03 | 363 (0.68) | 350 (0.65) | 0.003 |
| Solid organ or blood stem cell transplant | 4136 (1.3) | 1199 (2.22) | 0.063 | 1300 (2.43) | 1186 (2.22) | 0.014 |
| Cardiomyopathies | 38 820 (12.16) | 6881 (12.75) | 0.018 | 7062 (13.21) | 6800 (12.72) | 0.015 |
| Cerebrovascular disease | 51 309 (16.07) | 9248 (17.14) | 0.028 | 9130 (17.08) | 9136 (17.09) | <0.001 |
| Chronic lung disease | 118 183 (37.02) | 23 848 (44.2) | 0.145 | 23 798 (44.52) | 23 590 (44.14) | 0.008 |
| Congestive heart failure | 76 489 (23.96) | 14 127 (26.18) | 0.051 | 14 207 (26.58) | 13 960 (26.12) | 0.011 |
| Coronary artery disease | 88 610 (27.75) | 16 565 (30.7) | 0.064 | 16 701 (31.25) | 16 373 (30.63) | 0.013 |
| Dementia | 37 361 (11.7) | 5996 (11.11) | 0.019 | 5930 (11.09) | 5931 (11.1) | <0.001 |
| Depression | 86 762 (27.18) | 14 667 (27.18) | <0.001 | 14 607 (27.33) | 14 511 (27.15) | 0.004 |
| Diabetes mellitus–complicated | 105 102 (32.92) | 18 113 (33.57) | 0.014 | 18 198 (34.05) | 17 907 (33.5) | 0.012 |
| Diabetes mellitus–uncomplicated | 127 848 (40.04) | 22 237 (41.21) | 0.024 | 22 427 (41.96) | 22 002 (41.16) | 0.016 |
| Down syndrome | 82 (0.03) | <20 | 0.004 | <20 | <20 | <0.001 |
| Asthma | 40 179 (12.58) | 8011 (14.85) | 0.064 | 8083 (15.12) | 7921 (14.82) | 0.009 |
| Chronic kidney disease | 105 190 (32.95) | 17 773 (32.94) | <0.001 | 18 556 (34.72) | 17 559 (32.85) | 0.04 |
| Hematologic cancer | 11 515 (3.61) | 2706 (5.01) | 0.065 | 2683 (5.02) | 2675 (5) | <0.001 |
| Heart failure | 95 752 (29.99) | 17 507 (32.45) | 0.052 | 17 516 (32.77) | 17 302 (32.37) | 0.009 |
| Hemiplegia or paraplegia | 20 901 (6.55) | 3242 (6.01) | 0.023 | 3266 (6.11) | 3204 (5.99) | 0.005 |
| HIV infection | 3562 (1.12) | 503 (0.93) | 0.019 | 490 (0.92) | 500 (0.94) | 0.002 |
| Hypertension | 225 584 (70.66) | 40 491 (75.04) | 0.101 | 40 575 (75.91) | 40 079 (74.99) | 0.021 |
| Kidney disease | 112 052 (35.1) | 18 852 (34.94) | 0.003 | 19 664 (36.79) | 18 623 (34.84) | 0.041 |
| Malignant cancer | 58 891 (18.45) | 11 900 (22.05) | 0.087 | 11 795 (22.07) | 11 759 (22) | 0.002 |
| Metastatic solid tumor cancers | 4971 (1.56) | 996 (1.85) | 0.021 | 954 (1.78) | 983 (1.84) | 0.004 |
| Mild liver disease | 39 566 (12.39) | 6323 (11.72) | 0.021 | 6240 (11.67) | 6260 (11.71) | 0.001 |
| Moderate to severe liver disease | 17 087 (5.35) | 2152 (3.99) | 0.07 | 2197 (4.11) | 2120 (3.97) | 0.007 |
| Myocardial infarction | 52 084 (16.31) | 9278 (17.19) | 0.023 | 9328 (17.45) | 9164 (17.15) | 0.008 |
| Other immuno-compromised condition | 64 014 (20.05) | 12 617 (23.38) | 0.079 | 12 776 (23.9) | 12 442 (23.28) | 0.015 |
| Peptic ulcer | 14 917 (4.67) | 2463 (4.56) | 0.005 | 2578 (4.82) | 2428 (4.54) | 0.013 |
| Peripheral vascular disease | 47 507 (14.88) | 8421 (15.61) | 0.02 | 8331 (15.59) | 8313 (15.55) | <0.001 |
| Psychosis | 17 062 (5.34) | 1576 (2.92) | 0.144 | 1583 (2.96) | 1553 (2.91) | 0.003 |
| Pulmonary embolism | 17 470 (5.47) | 3286 (6.09) | 0.026 | 3405 (6.37) | 3237 (6.06) | 0.013 |
| Rheumatologic disease | 47 085 (14.75) | 9287 (17.21) | 0.065 | 9863 (18.45) | 9182 (17.18) | 0.034 |
| Sickle cell disease | 2027 (0.63) | 308 (0.57) | 0.009 | 239 (0.45) | 304 (0.57) | 0.016 |
| Stroke | 39 823 (12.47) | 6134 (11.37) | 0.035 | 6009 (11.24) | 6070 (11.36) | 0.004 |
| Substance abuse | 36 740 (11.51) | 4009 (7.43) | 0.155 | 4088 (7.65) | 3968 (7.42) | 0.009 |
| Thalassemia | 544 (0.17) | 102 (0.19) | 0.004 | 104 (0.19) | 101 (0.19) | 0.001 |
| Tuberculosis | 768 (0.24) | 137 (0.25) | 0.003 | 150 (0.28) | 136 (0.25) | 0.005 |
| Adalimumab | 1310 (0.41) | 240 (0.44) | 0.005 | 234 (0.44) | 238 (0.45) | 0.001 |
| Anakinra | 200 (0.06) | 40 (0.07) | 0.004 | 54 (0.1) | 38 (0.07) | 0.011 |
| Antibiotics | 227 214 (71.17) | 40 371 (74.82) | 0.084 | 40 326 (75.45) | 39 926 (74.7) | 0.017 |
| Anticoagulants | 157 982 (49.48) | 27 474 (50.92) | 0.029 | 27 547 (51.54) | 27 131 (50.76) | 0.016 |
| Azithromycin | 76 366 (23.92) | 15 838 (29.35) | 0.119 | 15 565 (29.12) | 15 624 (29.23) | 0.002 |
| Baricitinib | 2316 (0.73) | 89 (0.16) | 0.138 | 85 (0.16) | 85 (0.16) | <0.001 |
| Bebtelovimab | 722 (0.23) | 52 (0.1) | 0.042 | 91 (0.17) | 49 (0.09) | 0.026 |
| Benzodiazepines | 91 536 (28.67) | 15 213 (28.19) | 0.011 | 14 994 (28.05) | 15 015 (28.09) | <0.001 |
| Bupropion | 15 539 (4.87) | 2696 (5) | 0.006 | 2561 (4.79) | 2654 (4.97) | 0.008 |
| Casirivimab/imdevimab | 990 (0.31) | 125 (0.23) | 0.016 | 133 (0.25) | 119 (0.22) | 0.006 |
| Certolizumab | 95 (0.03) | 31 (0.06) | 0.012 | 26 (0.05) | 31 (0.06) | 0.004 |
| Chlorpromazine | 1946 (0.61) | 224 (0.42) | 0.03 | 206 (0.39) | 220 (0.41) | 0.004 |
| Citalopram | 12 276 (3.85) | 2049 (3.8) | 0.002 | 2174 (4.07) | 2026 (3.79) | 0.014 |
| Corticosteroids | 161 781 (50.67) | 32 533 (60.29) | 0.197 | 32 589 (60.97) | 32 139 (60.13) | 0.017 |
| Dexamethasone | 95 658 (29.96) | 19 921 (36.92) | 0.144 | 19 435 (36.36) | 19 631 (36.73) | 0.008 |
| Dextromethorphan | 24 764 (7.76) | 5065 (9.39) | 0.056 | 5067 (9.48) | 4982 (9.32) | 0.005 |
| Infliximab | 645 (0.2) | 141 (0.26) | 0.012 | 112 (0.21) | 138 (0.26) | 0.01 |
| Escitalopram | 20 412 (6.39) | 3313 (6.14) | 0.011 | 3170 (5.93) | 3269 (6.12) | 0.008 |
| Etanrecept | 429 (0.13) | 101 (0.19) | 0.012 | 131 (0.25) | 99 (0.19) | 0.014 |
| Evusheld | 550 (0.17) | 239 (0.44) | 0.041 | 227 (0.42) | 238 (0.45) | 0.003 |
| Fluoxetine | 13 026 (4.08) | 1892 (3.51) | 0.031 | 1950 (3.65) | 1879 (3.52) | 0.007 |
| Fluphenazine | 695 (0.22) | 42 (0.08) | 0.05 | 52 (0.1) | 42 (0.08) | 0.007 |
| Fluvoxamine | 398 (0.12) | 62 (0.11) | 0.003 | 62 (0.12) | 60 (0.11) | 0.001 |
| Glucocorticoids | 182 591 (57.19) | 35 835 (66.41) | 0.195 | 35 768 (66.92) | 35 419 (66.27) | 0.014 |
| Golimumab | 104 (0.03) | 26 (0.05) | 0.007 | 32 (0.06) | 26 (0.05) | 0.005 |
| Haloperidol | 35 668 (11.17) | 5798 (10.75) | 0.014 | 5801 (10.85) | 5724 (10.71) | 0.005 |
| Heparin | 119 676 (37.48) | 21 225 (39.34) | 0.038 | 21 429 (40.09) | 20 951 (39.2) | 0.018 |
| Hydrocortisone | 18 402 (5.76) | 3623 (6.71) | 0.038 | 3637 (6.8) | 3577 (6.69) | 0.004 |
| Hydroxychloroquine | 4983 (1.56) | 1006 (1.86) | 0.022 | 999 (1.87) | 996 (1.86) | <0.001 |
| Hydroxyzine | 37 241 (11.66) | 5246 (9.72) | 0.066 | 5228 (9.78) | 5182 (9.7) | 0.003 |
| Immunosuppressants | 38 723 (12.13) | 8735 (16.19) | 0.11 | 8906 (16.66) | 8620 (16.13) | 0.015 |
| Ivermectin | 1085 (0.34) | 208 (0.39) | 0.007 | 245 (0.46) | 207 (0.39) | 0.011 |
| Methylprednisolone | 58 203 (18.23) | 12 472 (23.11) | 0.116 | 12 631 (23.63) | 12 334 (23.08) | 0.013 |
| Molnupiravir | 486 (0.15) | 95 (0.18) | 0.006 | 100 (0.19) | 94 (0.18) | 0.003 |
| Paroxetine | 5396 (1.69) | 891 (1.65) | 0.003 | 819 (1.53) | 880 (1.65) | 0.009 |
| Paxlovid | 2411 (0.76) | 330 (0.61) | 0.018 | 425 (0.8) | 324 (0.61) | 0.024 |
| Pentazocine | <20 | <20 | 0.006 | <20 | <20 | 0.004 |
| Perphenazine | 371 (0.12) | 27 (0.05) | 0.03 | 32 (0.06) | 26 (0.05) | 0.005 |
| Pimozide | 22 (0.01) | <20 | <0.001 | <20 | <20 | 0.009 |
| Prednisone | 76 893 (24.08) | 17 053 (31.6) | 0.162 | 17 317 (32.4) | 16 873 (31.57) | 0.018 |
| Quinolones | 72 778 (22.8) | 14 231 (26.37) | 0.081 | 14 373 (26.89) | 14 069 (26.32) | 0.013 |
| Sarilumab | 96 (0.03) | <20 | 0.015 | <20 | <20 | 0.016 |
| Sertaline | 28 026 (8.78) | 4463 (8.27) | 0.018 | 4547 (8.51) | 4413 (8.26) | 0.009 |
| Selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors | 32 491 (10.18) | 5724 (10.61) | 0.014 | 5755 (10.77) | 5666 (10.6) | 0.005 |
| Sotrovimab | 374 (0.12) | 40 (0.07) | 0.016 | 33 (0.06) | 38 (0.07) | 0.004 |
| Systemic corticosteroids | 168 575 (52.8) | 33 725 (62.5) | 0.2 | 33 668 (62.99) | 33 329 (62.36) | 0.013 |
| Tamoxifen | 712 (0.22) | 150 (0.28) | 0.01 | 129 (0.24) | 149 (0.28) | 0.007 |
| Tocilizumab | 2082 (0.65) | 180 (0.33) | 0.055 | 203 (0.38) | 175 (0.33) | 0.009 |
| Tofacitinib | 429 (0.13) | 93 (0.17) | 0.009 | 78 (0.15) | 92 (0.17) | 0.006 |
| Tricyclic antidepressants | 14 414 (4.51) | 2651 (4.91) | 0.018 | 2635 (4.93) | 2636 (4.93) | <0.001 |
| Trifluoperazine | 58 (0.02) | <20 | <0.001 | <20 | <20 | 0.008 |
| Upadacitinib | 127 (0.04) | <20 | 0.004 | 20 (0.04) | <20 | 0.002 |
| Vasopressors | 94 817 (29.7) | 18 292 (33.9) | 0.089 | 18 236 (34.12) | 18 043 (33.76) | 0.008 |
| Lab values | ||||||
| White blood cells–high | 55 843 (17.49) | 7283 (13.5) | 0.117 | 7291 (13.64) | 7196 (13.46) | 0.005 |
| White blood cells–low | 45880 (14.37) | 7310 (13.55) | 0.024 | 7098 (13.28) | 7191 (13.45) | 0.005 |
| White blood cells–normal | 194 476 (60.91) | 34 340 (63.64) | 0.057 | 34 265 (64.11) | 34 044 (63.69) | 0.009 |
| Lymphocytes–high | 118 532 (37.13) | 19 634 (36.39) | 0.015 | 19 754 (36.96) | 19 336 (36.18) | 0.016 |
| Lymphocytes–low | 2499 (0.78) | 512 (0.95) | 0.017 | 397 (0.74) | 511 (0.96) | 0.022 |
| Lymphocytes–normal | 161 570 (50.61) | 27 001 (50.04) | 0.011 | 26 778 (50.1) | 26 809 (50.16) | 0.001 |
| Albumin–high | 165 (0.05) | 20 (0.04) | 0.008 | <20 | 20 (0.04) | 0.006 |
| Albumin–low | 111 488 (34.92) | 12 510 (23.18) | 0.278 | 12 372 (23.15) | 12 312 (23.04) | 0.003 |
| Albumin–normal | 173 297 (54.28) | 34 186 (63.36) | 0.188 | 34 282 (64.14) | 33 903 (63.43) | 0.015 |
| Alanine aminotransferase–high | 31 013 (9.71) | 3621 (6.71) | 0.12 | 3505 (6.56) | 3565 (6.67) | 0.004 |
| Alanine aminotransferase–low | 10 182 (3.19) | 1248 (2.31) | 0.058 | 1264 (2.36) | 1236 (2.31) | 0.003 |
| Alanine aminotransferase–normal | 250 516 (78.47) | 41 916 (77.68) | 0.019 | 41 941 (78.47) | 41 502 (77.65) | 0.02 |
| Estimated glomerular filtration rate–low | 45 827 (14.35) | 5290 (9.8) | 0.153 | 5733 (10.73) | 5236 (9.8) | 0.031 |
| Estimated glomerular filtration rate–normal | 232 042 (72.68) | 40 147 (74.4) | 0.039 | 39 499 (73.9) | 39 719 (74.31) | 0.009 |
| Platelets–high | 9247 (2.9) | 1096 (2.03) | 0.061 | 1118 (2.09) | 1088 (2.04) | 0.004 |
| Platelets–low | 65 088 (20.39) | 9921 (18.39) | 0.052 | 10 039 (18.78) | 9771 (18.28) | 0.013 |
| Platelets–normal | 227 509 (71.26) | 37 798 (70.05) | 0.026 | 37 341 (69.86) | 37 454 (70.07) | 0.005 |
| Creatinine–high | 8268 (2.59) | 825 (1.53) | 0.086 | 923 (1.73) | 815 (1.52) | 0.016 |
| Creatinine–low | 11 294 (3.54) | 1279 (2.37) | 0.077 | 1227 (2.3) | 1257 (2.35) | 0.004 |
| Creatinine–normal | 274 616 (86.01) | 46 859 (86.84) | 0.024 | 46 451 (86.91) | 46 390 (86.79) | 0.003 |
| Hemoglobin–high | 3951 (1.24) | 1074 (1.99) | 0.054 | 905 (1.69) | 1064 (1.99) | 0.021 |
| Hemoglobin–low | 168 567 (52.8) | 22 609 (41.9) | 0.221 | 22 763 (42.59) | 22 340 (41.8) | 0.016 |
| Hemoglobin–normal | 123 724 (38.75) | 25 250 (46.79) | 0.161 | 24 876 (46.54) | 25 028 (46.83) | 0.006 |
| . | Before Matching . | After Matching . | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Variable . | Noninitiators . | Initiators . | SMD . | Noninitiators . | Initiators . | SMD . |
| Treatment group | 319 267 (100) | 53 959 (100) | 53 449 (100) | 53 449 (100) | ||
| Died | 48 320 (15.13) | 7990 (14.81) | 8428 (15.77) | 7871 (14.73) | ||
| Invasive ventilation | 6503 (2.04) | 2358 (4.37) | 2290 (4.28) | 2290 (4.28) | ||
| Noninvasive supplemental oxygen | 41 094 (12.87) | 21 586 (40) | 21 187 (39.64) | 21 310 (39.87) | ||
| Invasive ventilation | 6503 (2.04) | 2358 (4.37) | 2290 (4.28) | 2290 (4.28) | ||
| Female | 161 285 (50.52) | 26 888 (49.83) | 0.014 | 26 608 (49.78) | 26 655 (49.87) | 0.002 |
| Age at admission, y | 64.95 (18.3) | 67.91 (16.21) | 0.182 | 68.07 (16.22) | 67.91 (16.22) | 0.01 |
| Race/ethnicity | ||||||
| Native Hawaiian and Pacific Islander | 2494 (0.78) | 476 (0.88) | 0.011 | 375 (0.7) | 474 (0.89) | 0.02 |
| White | 195 696 (61.3) | 34 680 (64.27) | 0.062 | 34 129 (63.85) | 34 349 (64.27) | 0.009 |
| Hispanic or Latino | 30 329 (9.5) | 5180 (9.6) | 0.003 | 5188 (9.71) | 5145 (9.63) | 0.003 |
| American Indian and Alaska native | 2090 (0.65) | 428 (0.79) | 0.016 | 476 (0.89) | 426 (0.8) | 0.011 |
| Black | 65 541 (20.53) | 9697 (17.97) | 0.067 | 9911 (18.54) | 9584 (17.93) | 0.016 |
| Asian | 8855 (2.77) | 1752 (3.25) | 0.027 | 1637 (3.06) | 1733 (3.24) | 0.01 |
| Total visits at health care center | 77.98 (92.95) | 95.44 (116.44) | 0.15 | 96.63 (116.25) | 95.12 (116.13) | 0.013 |
| Total hospitalizations | 2.77 (3.78) | 2.55 (3.95) | 0.057 | 2.58 (3.94) | 2.54 (3.93) | 0.011 |
| Days in health system | 1142.47 (444.76) | 1168.44 (473.29) | 0.055 | 1175.26 (473.68) | 1168.09 (473.93) | 0.015 |
| CCI score | 3.71 (3.2) | 3.89 (3.18) | 0.056 | 3.96 (3.17) | 3.88 (3.18) | 0.026 |
| Vaccinated | 84 257 (26.39) | 14 199 (26.31) | 0.002 | 14 020 (26.23) | 14 020 (26.23) | <0.001 |
| Vaccine dose number | 0.63 (1.16) | 0.63 (1.18) | 0.006 | 0.63 (1.17) | 0.63 (1.18) | 0.004 |
| Prebaseline exposure to low-flow oxygen | 42 828 (13.41) | 11 036 (20.45) | 0.174 | 10 788 (20.18) | 10 870 (20.34) | 0.004 |
| Prebaseline exposure to high-flow oxygen | 71 176 (22.29) | 18 306 (33.93) | 0.246 | 18 189 (34.03) | 18 042 (33.76) | 0.006 |
| Prebaseline exposure to invasive ventilation | 28 786 (9.02) | 4134 (7.66) | 0.051 | 4049 (7.58) | 4057 (7.59) | <0.001 |
| Prebaseline exposure to noninvasive supplemental oxygen | 84 546 (26.48) | 21 166 (39.23) | 0.261 | 20 816 (38.95) | 20 865 (39.04) | 0.002 |
| Prebaseline exposure to invasive ventilation | 28 786 (9.02) | 4134 (7.66) | 0.051 | 4049 (7.58) | 4057 (7.59) | <0.001 |
| BMI category | ||||||
| Underweight | 10 583 (3.31) | 1536 (2.85) | 0.028 | 1562 (2.92) | 1520 (2.84) | 0.005 |
| Normal weight | 59 532 (18.65) | 9311 (17.26) | 0.037 | 9274 (17.35) | 9234 (17.28) | 0.002 |
| Overweight | 65 083 (20.39) | 12 116 (22.45) | 0.05 | 12 173 (22.77) | 11 984 (22.42) | 0.008 |
| Obese | 73 506 (23.02) | 15 517 (28.76) | 0.127 | 15 329 (28.68) | 15 352 (28.72) | <0.001 |
| Obese class 3 | 28 356 (8.88) | 6763 (12.53) | 0.11 | 6857 (12.83) | 6701 (12.54) | 0.009 |
| Missing BMI | 82 207 (25.75) | 8716 (16.15) | 0.261 | 8254 (15.44) | 8658 (16.2) | 0.021 |
| Multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children | 78 (0.02) | <20a | 0.006 | <20 | <20 | 0.006 |
| Pneumonia due to COVID-19 | 51 324 (16.08) | 11 896 (22.05) | 0.144 | 11 201 (20.96) | 11 661 (21.82) | 0.021 |
| Obesity | 158 453 (49.63) | 31 312 (58.03) | 0.17 | 31 256 (58.48) | 30 992 (57.98) | 0.01 |
| Pregnancy | 11 864 (3.72) | 847 (1.57) | 0.173 | 846 (1.58) | 838 (1.57) | 0.001 |
| Tobacco smoker | 61 901 (19.39) | 11 007 (20.4) | 0.025 | 11 132 (20.83) | 10 903 (20.4) | 0.011 |
| Renal replacement therapy | 2849 (0.89) | 352 (0.65) | 0.03 | 363 (0.68) | 350 (0.65) | 0.003 |
| Solid organ or blood stem cell transplant | 4136 (1.3) | 1199 (2.22) | 0.063 | 1300 (2.43) | 1186 (2.22) | 0.014 |
| Cardiomyopathies | 38 820 (12.16) | 6881 (12.75) | 0.018 | 7062 (13.21) | 6800 (12.72) | 0.015 |
| Cerebrovascular disease | 51 309 (16.07) | 9248 (17.14) | 0.028 | 9130 (17.08) | 9136 (17.09) | <0.001 |
| Chronic lung disease | 118 183 (37.02) | 23 848 (44.2) | 0.145 | 23 798 (44.52) | 23 590 (44.14) | 0.008 |
| Congestive heart failure | 76 489 (23.96) | 14 127 (26.18) | 0.051 | 14 207 (26.58) | 13 960 (26.12) | 0.011 |
| Coronary artery disease | 88 610 (27.75) | 16 565 (30.7) | 0.064 | 16 701 (31.25) | 16 373 (30.63) | 0.013 |
| Dementia | 37 361 (11.7) | 5996 (11.11) | 0.019 | 5930 (11.09) | 5931 (11.1) | <0.001 |
| Depression | 86 762 (27.18) | 14 667 (27.18) | <0.001 | 14 607 (27.33) | 14 511 (27.15) | 0.004 |
| Diabetes mellitus–complicated | 105 102 (32.92) | 18 113 (33.57) | 0.014 | 18 198 (34.05) | 17 907 (33.5) | 0.012 |
| Diabetes mellitus–uncomplicated | 127 848 (40.04) | 22 237 (41.21) | 0.024 | 22 427 (41.96) | 22 002 (41.16) | 0.016 |
| Down syndrome | 82 (0.03) | <20 | 0.004 | <20 | <20 | <0.001 |
| Asthma | 40 179 (12.58) | 8011 (14.85) | 0.064 | 8083 (15.12) | 7921 (14.82) | 0.009 |
| Chronic kidney disease | 105 190 (32.95) | 17 773 (32.94) | <0.001 | 18 556 (34.72) | 17 559 (32.85) | 0.04 |
| Hematologic cancer | 11 515 (3.61) | 2706 (5.01) | 0.065 | 2683 (5.02) | 2675 (5) | <0.001 |
| Heart failure | 95 752 (29.99) | 17 507 (32.45) | 0.052 | 17 516 (32.77) | 17 302 (32.37) | 0.009 |
| Hemiplegia or paraplegia | 20 901 (6.55) | 3242 (6.01) | 0.023 | 3266 (6.11) | 3204 (5.99) | 0.005 |
| HIV infection | 3562 (1.12) | 503 (0.93) | 0.019 | 490 (0.92) | 500 (0.94) | 0.002 |
| Hypertension | 225 584 (70.66) | 40 491 (75.04) | 0.101 | 40 575 (75.91) | 40 079 (74.99) | 0.021 |
| Kidney disease | 112 052 (35.1) | 18 852 (34.94) | 0.003 | 19 664 (36.79) | 18 623 (34.84) | 0.041 |
| Malignant cancer | 58 891 (18.45) | 11 900 (22.05) | 0.087 | 11 795 (22.07) | 11 759 (22) | 0.002 |
| Metastatic solid tumor cancers | 4971 (1.56) | 996 (1.85) | 0.021 | 954 (1.78) | 983 (1.84) | 0.004 |
| Mild liver disease | 39 566 (12.39) | 6323 (11.72) | 0.021 | 6240 (11.67) | 6260 (11.71) | 0.001 |
| Moderate to severe liver disease | 17 087 (5.35) | 2152 (3.99) | 0.07 | 2197 (4.11) | 2120 (3.97) | 0.007 |
| Myocardial infarction | 52 084 (16.31) | 9278 (17.19) | 0.023 | 9328 (17.45) | 9164 (17.15) | 0.008 |
| Other immuno-compromised condition | 64 014 (20.05) | 12 617 (23.38) | 0.079 | 12 776 (23.9) | 12 442 (23.28) | 0.015 |
| Peptic ulcer | 14 917 (4.67) | 2463 (4.56) | 0.005 | 2578 (4.82) | 2428 (4.54) | 0.013 |
| Peripheral vascular disease | 47 507 (14.88) | 8421 (15.61) | 0.02 | 8331 (15.59) | 8313 (15.55) | <0.001 |
| Psychosis | 17 062 (5.34) | 1576 (2.92) | 0.144 | 1583 (2.96) | 1553 (2.91) | 0.003 |
| Pulmonary embolism | 17 470 (5.47) | 3286 (6.09) | 0.026 | 3405 (6.37) | 3237 (6.06) | 0.013 |
| Rheumatologic disease | 47 085 (14.75) | 9287 (17.21) | 0.065 | 9863 (18.45) | 9182 (17.18) | 0.034 |
| Sickle cell disease | 2027 (0.63) | 308 (0.57) | 0.009 | 239 (0.45) | 304 (0.57) | 0.016 |
| Stroke | 39 823 (12.47) | 6134 (11.37) | 0.035 | 6009 (11.24) | 6070 (11.36) | 0.004 |
| Substance abuse | 36 740 (11.51) | 4009 (7.43) | 0.155 | 4088 (7.65) | 3968 (7.42) | 0.009 |
| Thalassemia | 544 (0.17) | 102 (0.19) | 0.004 | 104 (0.19) | 101 (0.19) | 0.001 |
| Tuberculosis | 768 (0.24) | 137 (0.25) | 0.003 | 150 (0.28) | 136 (0.25) | 0.005 |
| Adalimumab | 1310 (0.41) | 240 (0.44) | 0.005 | 234 (0.44) | 238 (0.45) | 0.001 |
| Anakinra | 200 (0.06) | 40 (0.07) | 0.004 | 54 (0.1) | 38 (0.07) | 0.011 |
| Antibiotics | 227 214 (71.17) | 40 371 (74.82) | 0.084 | 40 326 (75.45) | 39 926 (74.7) | 0.017 |
| Anticoagulants | 157 982 (49.48) | 27 474 (50.92) | 0.029 | 27 547 (51.54) | 27 131 (50.76) | 0.016 |
| Azithromycin | 76 366 (23.92) | 15 838 (29.35) | 0.119 | 15 565 (29.12) | 15 624 (29.23) | 0.002 |
| Baricitinib | 2316 (0.73) | 89 (0.16) | 0.138 | 85 (0.16) | 85 (0.16) | <0.001 |
| Bebtelovimab | 722 (0.23) | 52 (0.1) | 0.042 | 91 (0.17) | 49 (0.09) | 0.026 |
| Benzodiazepines | 91 536 (28.67) | 15 213 (28.19) | 0.011 | 14 994 (28.05) | 15 015 (28.09) | <0.001 |
| Bupropion | 15 539 (4.87) | 2696 (5) | 0.006 | 2561 (4.79) | 2654 (4.97) | 0.008 |
| Casirivimab/imdevimab | 990 (0.31) | 125 (0.23) | 0.016 | 133 (0.25) | 119 (0.22) | 0.006 |
| Certolizumab | 95 (0.03) | 31 (0.06) | 0.012 | 26 (0.05) | 31 (0.06) | 0.004 |
| Chlorpromazine | 1946 (0.61) | 224 (0.42) | 0.03 | 206 (0.39) | 220 (0.41) | 0.004 |
| Citalopram | 12 276 (3.85) | 2049 (3.8) | 0.002 | 2174 (4.07) | 2026 (3.79) | 0.014 |
| Corticosteroids | 161 781 (50.67) | 32 533 (60.29) | 0.197 | 32 589 (60.97) | 32 139 (60.13) | 0.017 |
| Dexamethasone | 95 658 (29.96) | 19 921 (36.92) | 0.144 | 19 435 (36.36) | 19 631 (36.73) | 0.008 |
| Dextromethorphan | 24 764 (7.76) | 5065 (9.39) | 0.056 | 5067 (9.48) | 4982 (9.32) | 0.005 |
| Infliximab | 645 (0.2) | 141 (0.26) | 0.012 | 112 (0.21) | 138 (0.26) | 0.01 |
| Escitalopram | 20 412 (6.39) | 3313 (6.14) | 0.011 | 3170 (5.93) | 3269 (6.12) | 0.008 |
| Etanrecept | 429 (0.13) | 101 (0.19) | 0.012 | 131 (0.25) | 99 (0.19) | 0.014 |
| Evusheld | 550 (0.17) | 239 (0.44) | 0.041 | 227 (0.42) | 238 (0.45) | 0.003 |
| Fluoxetine | 13 026 (4.08) | 1892 (3.51) | 0.031 | 1950 (3.65) | 1879 (3.52) | 0.007 |
| Fluphenazine | 695 (0.22) | 42 (0.08) | 0.05 | 52 (0.1) | 42 (0.08) | 0.007 |
| Fluvoxamine | 398 (0.12) | 62 (0.11) | 0.003 | 62 (0.12) | 60 (0.11) | 0.001 |
| Glucocorticoids | 182 591 (57.19) | 35 835 (66.41) | 0.195 | 35 768 (66.92) | 35 419 (66.27) | 0.014 |
| Golimumab | 104 (0.03) | 26 (0.05) | 0.007 | 32 (0.06) | 26 (0.05) | 0.005 |
| Haloperidol | 35 668 (11.17) | 5798 (10.75) | 0.014 | 5801 (10.85) | 5724 (10.71) | 0.005 |
| Heparin | 119 676 (37.48) | 21 225 (39.34) | 0.038 | 21 429 (40.09) | 20 951 (39.2) | 0.018 |
| Hydrocortisone | 18 402 (5.76) | 3623 (6.71) | 0.038 | 3637 (6.8) | 3577 (6.69) | 0.004 |
| Hydroxychloroquine | 4983 (1.56) | 1006 (1.86) | 0.022 | 999 (1.87) | 996 (1.86) | <0.001 |
| Hydroxyzine | 37 241 (11.66) | 5246 (9.72) | 0.066 | 5228 (9.78) | 5182 (9.7) | 0.003 |
| Immunosuppressants | 38 723 (12.13) | 8735 (16.19) | 0.11 | 8906 (16.66) | 8620 (16.13) | 0.015 |
| Ivermectin | 1085 (0.34) | 208 (0.39) | 0.007 | 245 (0.46) | 207 (0.39) | 0.011 |
| Methylprednisolone | 58 203 (18.23) | 12 472 (23.11) | 0.116 | 12 631 (23.63) | 12 334 (23.08) | 0.013 |
| Molnupiravir | 486 (0.15) | 95 (0.18) | 0.006 | 100 (0.19) | 94 (0.18) | 0.003 |
| Paroxetine | 5396 (1.69) | 891 (1.65) | 0.003 | 819 (1.53) | 880 (1.65) | 0.009 |
| Paxlovid | 2411 (0.76) | 330 (0.61) | 0.018 | 425 (0.8) | 324 (0.61) | 0.024 |
| Pentazocine | <20 | <20 | 0.006 | <20 | <20 | 0.004 |
| Perphenazine | 371 (0.12) | 27 (0.05) | 0.03 | 32 (0.06) | 26 (0.05) | 0.005 |
| Pimozide | 22 (0.01) | <20 | <0.001 | <20 | <20 | 0.009 |
| Prednisone | 76 893 (24.08) | 17 053 (31.6) | 0.162 | 17 317 (32.4) | 16 873 (31.57) | 0.018 |
| Quinolones | 72 778 (22.8) | 14 231 (26.37) | 0.081 | 14 373 (26.89) | 14 069 (26.32) | 0.013 |
| Sarilumab | 96 (0.03) | <20 | 0.015 | <20 | <20 | 0.016 |
| Sertaline | 28 026 (8.78) | 4463 (8.27) | 0.018 | 4547 (8.51) | 4413 (8.26) | 0.009 |
| Selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors | 32 491 (10.18) | 5724 (10.61) | 0.014 | 5755 (10.77) | 5666 (10.6) | 0.005 |
| Sotrovimab | 374 (0.12) | 40 (0.07) | 0.016 | 33 (0.06) | 38 (0.07) | 0.004 |
| Systemic corticosteroids | 168 575 (52.8) | 33 725 (62.5) | 0.2 | 33 668 (62.99) | 33 329 (62.36) | 0.013 |
| Tamoxifen | 712 (0.22) | 150 (0.28) | 0.01 | 129 (0.24) | 149 (0.28) | 0.007 |
| Tocilizumab | 2082 (0.65) | 180 (0.33) | 0.055 | 203 (0.38) | 175 (0.33) | 0.009 |
| Tofacitinib | 429 (0.13) | 93 (0.17) | 0.009 | 78 (0.15) | 92 (0.17) | 0.006 |
| Tricyclic antidepressants | 14 414 (4.51) | 2651 (4.91) | 0.018 | 2635 (4.93) | 2636 (4.93) | <0.001 |
| Trifluoperazine | 58 (0.02) | <20 | <0.001 | <20 | <20 | 0.008 |
| Upadacitinib | 127 (0.04) | <20 | 0.004 | 20 (0.04) | <20 | 0.002 |
| Vasopressors | 94 817 (29.7) | 18 292 (33.9) | 0.089 | 18 236 (34.12) | 18 043 (33.76) | 0.008 |
| Lab values | ||||||
| White blood cells–high | 55 843 (17.49) | 7283 (13.5) | 0.117 | 7291 (13.64) | 7196 (13.46) | 0.005 |
| White blood cells–low | 45880 (14.37) | 7310 (13.55) | 0.024 | 7098 (13.28) | 7191 (13.45) | 0.005 |
| White blood cells–normal | 194 476 (60.91) | 34 340 (63.64) | 0.057 | 34 265 (64.11) | 34 044 (63.69) | 0.009 |
| Lymphocytes–high | 118 532 (37.13) | 19 634 (36.39) | 0.015 | 19 754 (36.96) | 19 336 (36.18) | 0.016 |
| Lymphocytes–low | 2499 (0.78) | 512 (0.95) | 0.017 | 397 (0.74) | 511 (0.96) | 0.022 |
| Lymphocytes–normal | 161 570 (50.61) | 27 001 (50.04) | 0.011 | 26 778 (50.1) | 26 809 (50.16) | 0.001 |
| Albumin–high | 165 (0.05) | 20 (0.04) | 0.008 | <20 | 20 (0.04) | 0.006 |
| Albumin–low | 111 488 (34.92) | 12 510 (23.18) | 0.278 | 12 372 (23.15) | 12 312 (23.04) | 0.003 |
| Albumin–normal | 173 297 (54.28) | 34 186 (63.36) | 0.188 | 34 282 (64.14) | 33 903 (63.43) | 0.015 |
| Alanine aminotransferase–high | 31 013 (9.71) | 3621 (6.71) | 0.12 | 3505 (6.56) | 3565 (6.67) | 0.004 |
| Alanine aminotransferase–low | 10 182 (3.19) | 1248 (2.31) | 0.058 | 1264 (2.36) | 1236 (2.31) | 0.003 |
| Alanine aminotransferase–normal | 250 516 (78.47) | 41 916 (77.68) | 0.019 | 41 941 (78.47) | 41 502 (77.65) | 0.02 |
| Estimated glomerular filtration rate–low | 45 827 (14.35) | 5290 (9.8) | 0.153 | 5733 (10.73) | 5236 (9.8) | 0.031 |
| Estimated glomerular filtration rate–normal | 232 042 (72.68) | 40 147 (74.4) | 0.039 | 39 499 (73.9) | 39 719 (74.31) | 0.009 |
| Platelets–high | 9247 (2.9) | 1096 (2.03) | 0.061 | 1118 (2.09) | 1088 (2.04) | 0.004 |
| Platelets–low | 65 088 (20.39) | 9921 (18.39) | 0.052 | 10 039 (18.78) | 9771 (18.28) | 0.013 |
| Platelets–normal | 227 509 (71.26) | 37 798 (70.05) | 0.026 | 37 341 (69.86) | 37 454 (70.07) | 0.005 |
| Creatinine–high | 8268 (2.59) | 825 (1.53) | 0.086 | 923 (1.73) | 815 (1.52) | 0.016 |
| Creatinine–low | 11 294 (3.54) | 1279 (2.37) | 0.077 | 1227 (2.3) | 1257 (2.35) | 0.004 |
| Creatinine–normal | 274 616 (86.01) | 46 859 (86.84) | 0.024 | 46 451 (86.91) | 46 390 (86.79) | 0.003 |
| Hemoglobin–high | 3951 (1.24) | 1074 (1.99) | 0.054 | 905 (1.69) | 1064 (1.99) | 0.021 |
| Hemoglobin–low | 168 567 (52.8) | 22 609 (41.9) | 0.221 | 22 763 (42.59) | 22 340 (41.8) | 0.016 |
| Hemoglobin–normal | 123 724 (38.75) | 25 250 (46.79) | 0.161 | 24 876 (46.54) | 25 028 (46.83) | 0.006 |
Abbreviations: BMI, body mass index; CCI, Charlson comorbidity index; COVID-19, coronavirus disease 2019; RDV, remdesivir; SMD, standardized mean difference.
aAs per N3C policy, counts <20 have been concealed to preserve patient privacy.
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