Table 2. Open in new tab Included...

Study author

Intervention age group

Sample size

Outcome

Direction of association

Risk of bias

Friedman 2019²⁸

18–20 year olds

1869

Current cigarette smoking: AOR 0.6 (0.39, 0.92)^

Favors intervention

Serious

Macinko 2018²⁹

7–12 graders

76 668

Current cigarette smoking: APR 1.25 (0.88, 1.76)

Not significant

Moderate

Macinko 2018²⁹

9–12 graders

71 214

Current cigarette smoking: APR 1.40 (1.10, 1.80)^

Favors control

Serious

Garcia-Ramirez 2022³⁰

7, 9, and 11 graders

2 229 401

Current cigarette smoking: AOR 0.98 (0.94, 1.03)

Not significant

Moderate

Friedman 2020³¹

18-20 year olds

25,066

Current cigarette smoking: −0.0306 absolute risk reduction (CI −0.0548 to −0.0063)^

Favors intervention

Moderate

Agaku 2022³²

18–20 year olds

10 146

Current cigarette smoking: APR 0.58 (0.39, 0.74)^

Favors intervention

Serious

Agaku 2022³²

9–12 graders

182 491

Current cigarette smoking: APR 0.70 (0.52, −0.93)^

Favors intervention

Serious

Dove 2021³³

18–20 year olds

15 863

Current cigarette smoking: AOR 1.01 (0.76, 1.34)

Not significant

Serious

Colston 2022³⁴

8 graders

92 922

Current cigarette smoking: ARR 0.91 (0.69, 1.20)

Not significant

Moderate

Colston 2022³⁴

10 graders

88 628

Current cigarette smoking: ARR 0.96 (0.75, 1.23)

Not significant

Moderate

Colston 2022³⁴

12 graders

81 082

Current cigarette smoking: ARR 0.74 (0.60 to 0.91)^

Favors intervention

Moderate

Roberts 2022³⁵

First-year university students

1140

Current cigarette smoking: 4.1% (interv) 6.6% (control)

Not significant

Critical

Grube 2021³⁶

7, 9, and 11 graders

2 956 054

Current cigarette smoking: AOR 0.99 (0.97, 1.01)

Not significant

Moderate

Glover-Kudon 2021 (Hawaii)³⁷

N/A

Change in average monthly unit sales: intervention −4.4%, control −10.6%

Not tested

Serious

Glover-Kudon 2021 (California)³⁷

N/A

Change in average monthly unit sales: intervention −11.7%, control −10.6%

Serious

Schneider 2016³⁸

9–12 graders

16 385 to 17,089*

Current cigarette smoking: 12.9% to 6.7% (intervention) 14.8% to 12.0% (control); p < .01^

Favors intervention

Critical

Schiff 2021³⁹

19–20 year olds

3111

Past 30-day use, cigarette: Pre T21 = 150 (9.6%) Post T-21 = 164 (11.1%)

Not tested

Critical

Hawkins 2022⁴⁰

9–12 graders

9988

Current cigarette smoking: Inflation model 0.12 (−1.34 to 0.11)

Not significant

Moderate

Liber 2022⁴¹

N/A

Absolute adjusted risk difference: Cigarette brand sales: −0.000156 (p = < .001)^

Favors intervention

Moderate

Ali 2020 (California)⁴²

N/A

Absolute adjusted risk difference of cigarette sales: −9.41 (−15.52, −3.30)^

Favors intervention

Serious

Ali 2020 (Hawaii)⁴²

N/A

Absolute adjusted risk difference of cigarette sales: −0.57 (−0.83, −0.30)^

Favors intervention

Serious

Patel 2023⁴³

15–21 year olds

13 990

Current cigarette smoking: AOR 0.90 (CI: 0.72 to 1.14)

Not significant

Moderate

Wilhelm 2021⁴⁴

8 and 9 graders

210 177

Current cigarette use, 8/9 grade: AOR 0.81 (0.67, 0.99)^

Favors intervention

Serious

Wilhelm 2021⁴⁴

11 graders

210 177

Cigarettes, 11 grade: AOR 1.2 (0.97, 1.48)

Not significant

Serious

Yan 2014⁴⁵

20 year olds

60 710

Prenatal smoking: 0.013 (SE = 0.010)

Not significant

Moderate

Trapl 2022⁴⁶

9–12 graders

12 616

Adjusted current cigarette smoking: (β = 0.04 [SE = 0.07]; p = .56)

Not significant

Moderate

Abouk 2024⁴⁹

8 and 10 graders

53 918

Cigarette use past month: −.0100 (SE = 0.0071) (Table 3, column 2)

Not significant

Moderate

Abouk 2024⁴⁹

12 graders

21 516

Cigarette use past month: −0.0208 (SE = 0.0100), p = < .05

Favors intervention

Moderate

Abouk 2024⁴⁹

N/A

Cigarette sales: −.00714 (0.0334) (p < .05)

Favors intervention

Serious

Hansen 2023⁵⁰

18–20 year olds

95 557

Smoking participation: −0.037 (SE = 0.009), p = < .01

Favors intervention

Moderate

Hansen 2023⁵⁰

18–20 year olds

87 612

Smoking participation: −0.009 (SE = 0.019)

Not significant

Moderate

Tennekoon 2023⁴⁷

18–20 year old (pregnant)

2 140 600

Current smoking at the beginning of pregnancy: −0.0574 (0.0009), p ≤ .01

Favors intervention

Serious

Friedman 2024⁴⁸

18–20 year olds

55 775

Current cigarette use 0.60 (CI 0.45, 0.79), p < .01

Favors intervention

Serious

Friedman 2024⁴⁸

18–20 year olds

Unknown

Current established smoking: 0.38 (0.25, 0.57)

Favors intervention

Serious

Study author

Intervention age group

Sample size

Outcome

Direction of association

Risk of bias

Friedman 2019²⁸

18–20 year olds

1869

Current cigarette smoking: AOR 0.6 (0.39, 0.92)^

Favors intervention

Serious

Macinko 2018²⁹

7–12 graders

76 668

Current cigarette smoking: APR 1.25 (0.88, 1.76)

Not significant

Moderate

Macinko 2018²⁹

9–12 graders

71 214

Current cigarette smoking: APR 1.40 (1.10, 1.80)^

Favors control

Serious

Garcia-Ramirez 2022³⁰

7, 9, and 11 graders

2 229 401

Current cigarette smoking: AOR 0.98 (0.94, 1.03)

Not significant

Moderate

Friedman 2020³¹

18-20 year olds

25,066

Current cigarette smoking: −0.0306 absolute risk reduction (CI −0.0548 to −0.0063)^

Favors intervention

Moderate

Agaku 2022³²

18–20 year olds

10 146

Current cigarette smoking: APR 0.58 (0.39, 0.74)^

Favors intervention

Serious

Agaku 2022³²

9–12 graders

182 491

Current cigarette smoking: APR 0.70 (0.52, −0.93)^

Favors intervention

Serious

Dove 2021³³

18–20 year olds

15 863

Current cigarette smoking: AOR 1.01 (0.76, 1.34)

Not significant

Serious

Colston 2022³⁴

8 graders

92 922

Current cigarette smoking: ARR 0.91 (0.69, 1.20)

Not significant

Moderate

Colston 2022³⁴

10 graders

88 628

Current cigarette smoking: ARR 0.96 (0.75, 1.23)

Not significant

Moderate

Colston 2022³⁴

12 graders

81 082

Current cigarette smoking: ARR 0.74 (0.60 to 0.91)^

Favors intervention

Moderate

Roberts 2022³⁵

First-year university students

1140

Current cigarette smoking: 4.1% (interv) 6.6% (control)

Not significant

Critical

Grube 2021³⁶

7, 9, and 11 graders

2 956 054

Current cigarette smoking: AOR 0.99 (0.97, 1.01)

Not significant

Moderate

Glover-Kudon 2021 (Hawaii)³⁷

N/A

Change in average monthly unit sales: intervention −4.4%, control −10.6%

Not tested

Serious

Glover-Kudon 2021 (California)³⁷

N/A

Change in average monthly unit sales: intervention −11.7%, control −10.6%

Serious

Schneider 2016³⁸

9–12 graders

16 385 to 17,089*

Current cigarette smoking: 12.9% to 6.7% (intervention) 14.8% to 12.0% (control); p < .01^

Favors intervention

Critical

Schiff 2021³⁹

19–20 year olds

3111

Past 30-day use, cigarette: Pre T21 = 150 (9.6%) Post T-21 = 164 (11.1%)

Not tested

Critical

Hawkins 2022⁴⁰

9–12 graders

9988

Current cigarette smoking: Inflation model 0.12 (−1.34 to 0.11)

Not significant

Moderate

Liber 2022⁴¹

N/A

Absolute adjusted risk difference: Cigarette brand sales: −0.000156 (p = < .001)^

Favors intervention

Moderate

Ali 2020 (California)⁴²

N/A

Absolute adjusted risk difference of cigarette sales: −9.41 (−15.52, −3.30)^

Favors intervention

Serious

Ali 2020 (Hawaii)⁴²

N/A

Absolute adjusted risk difference of cigarette sales: −0.57 (−0.83, −0.30)^

Favors intervention

Serious

Patel 2023⁴³

15–21 year olds

13 990

Current cigarette smoking: AOR 0.90 (CI: 0.72 to 1.14)

Not significant

Moderate

Wilhelm 2021⁴⁴

8 and 9 graders

210 177

Current cigarette use, 8/9 grade: AOR 0.81 (0.67, 0.99)^

Favors intervention

Serious

Wilhelm 2021⁴⁴

11 graders

210 177

Cigarettes, 11 grade: AOR 1.2 (0.97, 1.48)

Not significant

Serious

Yan 2014⁴⁵

20 year olds

60 710

Prenatal smoking: 0.013 (SE = 0.010)

Not significant

Moderate

Trapl 2022⁴⁶

9–12 graders

12 616

Adjusted current cigarette smoking: (β = 0.04 [SE = 0.07]; p = .56)

Not significant

Moderate

Abouk 2024⁴⁹

8 and 10 graders

53 918

Cigarette use past month: −.0100 (SE = 0.0071) (Table 3, column 2)

Not significant

Moderate

Abouk 2024⁴⁹

12 graders

21 516

Cigarette use past month: −0.0208 (SE = 0.0100), p = < .05

Favors intervention

Moderate

Abouk 2024⁴⁹

N/A

Cigarette sales: −.00714 (0.0334) (p < .05)

Favors intervention

Serious

Hansen 2023⁵⁰

18–20 year olds

95 557

Smoking participation: −0.037 (SE = 0.009), p = < .01

Favors intervention

Moderate

Hansen 2023⁵⁰

18–20 year olds

87 612

Smoking participation: −0.009 (SE = 0.019)

Not significant

Moderate

Tennekoon 2023⁴⁷

18–20 year old (pregnant)

2 140 600

Current smoking at the beginning of pregnancy: −0.0574 (0.0009), p ≤ .01

Favors intervention

Serious

Friedman 2024⁴⁸

18–20 year olds

55 775

Current cigarette use 0.60 (CI 0.45, 0.79), p < .01

Favors intervention

Serious

Friedman 2024⁴⁸

18–20 year olds

Unknown

Current established smoking: 0.38 (0.25, 0.57)

Favors intervention

Serious

Table 2.

Open in new tab

Included Estimates of Association by Age Group, Sample Size, Outcome, Direction of Association, and Risk of Bias

Study author	Intervention age group	Sample size	Outcome	Direction of association	Risk of bias
Friedman 2019²⁸	18–20 year olds	1869	Current cigarette smoking: AOR 0.6 (0.39, 0.92)^	Favors intervention	Serious
Macinko 2018²⁹	7–12 graders	76 668	Current cigarette smoking: APR 1.25 (0.88, 1.76)	Not significant	Moderate
Macinko 2018²⁹	9–12 graders	71 214	Current cigarette smoking: APR 1.40 (1.10, 1.80)^	Favors control	Serious
Garcia-Ramirez 2022³⁰	7, 9, and 11 graders	2 229 401	Current cigarette smoking: AOR 0.98 (0.94, 1.03)	Not significant	Moderate
Friedman 2020³¹	18-20 year olds	25,066	Current cigarette smoking: −0.0306 absolute risk reduction (CI −0.0548 to −0.0063)^	Favors intervention	Moderate
Agaku 2022³²	18–20 year olds	10 146	Current cigarette smoking: APR 0.58 (0.39, 0.74)^	Favors intervention	Serious
Agaku 2022³²	9–12 graders	182 491	Current cigarette smoking: APR 0.70 (0.52, −0.93)^	Favors intervention	Serious
Dove 2021³³	18–20 year olds	15 863	Current cigarette smoking: AOR 1.01 (0.76, 1.34)	Not significant	Serious
Colston 2022³⁴	8 graders	92 922	Current cigarette smoking: ARR 0.91 (0.69, 1.20)	Not significant	Moderate
Colston 2022³⁴	10 graders	88 628	Current cigarette smoking: ARR 0.96 (0.75, 1.23)	Not significant	Moderate
Colston 2022³⁴	12 graders	81 082	Current cigarette smoking: ARR 0.74 (0.60 to 0.91)^	Favors intervention	Moderate
Roberts 2022³⁵	First-year university students	1140	Current cigarette smoking: 4.1% (interv) 6.6% (control)	Not significant	Critical
Grube 2021³⁶	7, 9, and 11 graders	2 956 054	Current cigarette smoking: AOR 0.99 (0.97, 1.01)	Not significant	Moderate
Glover-Kudon 2021 (Hawaii)³⁷	N/A	N/A	Change in average monthly unit sales: intervention −4.4%, control −10.6%	Not tested	Serious
Glover-Kudon 2021 (California)³⁷	N/A	N/A	Change in average monthly unit sales: intervention −11.7%, control −10.6%	NA	Serious
Schneider 2016³⁸	9–12 graders	16 385 to 17,089*	Current cigarette smoking: 12.9% to 6.7% (intervention) 14.8% to 12.0% (control); p < .01^	Favors intervention	Critical
Schiff 2021³⁹	19–20 year olds	3111	Past 30-day use, cigarette: Pre T21 = 150 (9.6%) Post T-21 = 164 (11.1%)	Not tested	Critical
Hawkins 2022⁴⁰	9–12 graders	9988	Current cigarette smoking: Inflation model 0.12 (−1.34 to 0.11)	Not significant	Moderate
Liber 2022⁴¹	N/A	N/A	Absolute adjusted risk difference: Cigarette brand sales: −0.000156 (p = < .001)^	Favors intervention	Moderate
Ali 2020 (California)⁴²	N/A	N/A	Absolute adjusted risk difference of cigarette sales: −9.41 (−15.52, −3.30)^	Favors intervention	Serious
Ali 2020 (Hawaii)⁴²	N/A	N/A	Absolute adjusted risk difference of cigarette sales: −0.57 (−0.83, −0.30)^	Favors intervention	Serious
Patel 2023⁴³	15–21 year olds	13 990	Current cigarette smoking: AOR 0.90 (CI: 0.72 to 1.14)	Not significant	Moderate
Wilhelm 2021⁴⁴	8 and 9 graders	210 177	Current cigarette use, 8/9 grade: AOR 0.81 (0.67, 0.99)^	Favors intervention	Serious
Wilhelm 2021⁴⁴	11 graders	210 177	Cigarettes, 11 grade: AOR 1.2 (0.97, 1.48)	Not significant	Serious
Yan 2014⁴⁵	20 year olds	60 710	Prenatal smoking: 0.013 (SE = 0.010)	Not significant	Moderate
Trapl 2022⁴⁶	9–12 graders	12 616	Adjusted current cigarette smoking: (β = 0.04 [SE = 0.07]; p = .56)	Not significant	Moderate
Abouk 2024⁴⁹	8 and 10 graders	53 918	Cigarette use past month: −.0100 (SE = 0.0071) (Table 3, column 2)	Not significant	Moderate
Abouk 2024⁴⁹	12 graders	21 516	Cigarette use past month: −0.0208 (SE = 0.0100), p = < .05	Favors intervention	Moderate
Abouk 2024⁴⁹	N/A	N/A	Cigarette sales: −.00714 (0.0334) (p < .05)	Favors intervention	Serious
Hansen 2023⁵⁰	18–20 year olds	95 557	Smoking participation: −0.037 (SE = 0.009), p = < .01	Favors intervention	Moderate
Hansen 2023⁵⁰	18–20 year olds	87 612	Smoking participation: −0.009 (SE = 0.019)	Not significant	Moderate
Tennekoon 2023⁴⁷	18–20 year old (pregnant)	2 140 600	Current smoking at the beginning of pregnancy: −0.0574 (0.0009), p ≤ .01	Favors intervention	Serious
Friedman 2024⁴⁸	18–20 year olds	55 775	Current cigarette use 0.60 (CI 0.45, 0.79), p < .01	Favors intervention	Serious
Friedman 2024⁴⁸	18–20 year olds	Unknown	Current established smoking: 0.38 (0.25, 0.57)	Favors intervention	Serious

Study author	Intervention age group	Sample size	Outcome	Direction of association	Risk of bias
Friedman 2019²⁸	18–20 year olds	1869	Current cigarette smoking: AOR 0.6 (0.39, 0.92)^	Favors intervention	Serious
Macinko 2018²⁹	7–12 graders	76 668	Current cigarette smoking: APR 1.25 (0.88, 1.76)	Not significant	Moderate
Macinko 2018²⁹	9–12 graders	71 214	Current cigarette smoking: APR 1.40 (1.10, 1.80)^	Favors control	Serious
Garcia-Ramirez 2022³⁰	7, 9, and 11 graders	2 229 401	Current cigarette smoking: AOR 0.98 (0.94, 1.03)	Not significant	Moderate
Friedman 2020³¹	18-20 year olds	25,066	Current cigarette smoking: −0.0306 absolute risk reduction (CI −0.0548 to −0.0063)^	Favors intervention	Moderate
Agaku 2022³²	18–20 year olds	10 146	Current cigarette smoking: APR 0.58 (0.39, 0.74)^	Favors intervention	Serious
Agaku 2022³²	9–12 graders	182 491	Current cigarette smoking: APR 0.70 (0.52, −0.93)^	Favors intervention	Serious
Dove 2021³³	18–20 year olds	15 863	Current cigarette smoking: AOR 1.01 (0.76, 1.34)	Not significant	Serious
Colston 2022³⁴	8 graders	92 922	Current cigarette smoking: ARR 0.91 (0.69, 1.20)	Not significant	Moderate
Colston 2022³⁴	10 graders	88 628	Current cigarette smoking: ARR 0.96 (0.75, 1.23)	Not significant	Moderate
Colston 2022³⁴	12 graders	81 082	Current cigarette smoking: ARR 0.74 (0.60 to 0.91)^	Favors intervention	Moderate
Roberts 2022³⁵	First-year university students	1140	Current cigarette smoking: 4.1% (interv) 6.6% (control)	Not significant	Critical
Grube 2021³⁶	7, 9, and 11 graders	2 956 054	Current cigarette smoking: AOR 0.99 (0.97, 1.01)	Not significant	Moderate
Glover-Kudon 2021 (Hawaii)³⁷	N/A	N/A	Change in average monthly unit sales: intervention −4.4%, control −10.6%	Not tested	Serious
Glover-Kudon 2021 (California)³⁷	N/A	N/A	Change in average monthly unit sales: intervention −11.7%, control −10.6%	NA	Serious
Schneider 2016³⁸	9–12 graders	16 385 to 17,089*	Current cigarette smoking: 12.9% to 6.7% (intervention) 14.8% to 12.0% (control); p < .01^	Favors intervention	Critical
Schiff 2021³⁹	19–20 year olds	3111	Past 30-day use, cigarette: Pre T21 = 150 (9.6%) Post T-21 = 164 (11.1%)	Not tested	Critical
Hawkins 2022⁴⁰	9–12 graders	9988	Current cigarette smoking: Inflation model 0.12 (−1.34 to 0.11)	Not significant	Moderate
Liber 2022⁴¹	N/A	N/A	Absolute adjusted risk difference: Cigarette brand sales: −0.000156 (p = < .001)^	Favors intervention	Moderate
Ali 2020 (California)⁴²	N/A	N/A	Absolute adjusted risk difference of cigarette sales: −9.41 (−15.52, −3.30)^	Favors intervention	Serious
Ali 2020 (Hawaii)⁴²	N/A	N/A	Absolute adjusted risk difference of cigarette sales: −0.57 (−0.83, −0.30)^	Favors intervention	Serious
Patel 2023⁴³	15–21 year olds	13 990	Current cigarette smoking: AOR 0.90 (CI: 0.72 to 1.14)	Not significant	Moderate
Wilhelm 2021⁴⁴	8 and 9 graders	210 177	Current cigarette use, 8/9 grade: AOR 0.81 (0.67, 0.99)^	Favors intervention	Serious
Wilhelm 2021⁴⁴	11 graders	210 177	Cigarettes, 11 grade: AOR 1.2 (0.97, 1.48)	Not significant	Serious
Yan 2014⁴⁵	20 year olds	60 710	Prenatal smoking: 0.013 (SE = 0.010)	Not significant	Moderate
Trapl 2022⁴⁶	9–12 graders	12 616	Adjusted current cigarette smoking: (β = 0.04 [SE = 0.07]; p = .56)	Not significant	Moderate
Abouk 2024⁴⁹	8 and 10 graders	53 918	Cigarette use past month: −.0100 (SE = 0.0071) (Table 3, column 2)	Not significant	Moderate
Abouk 2024⁴⁹	12 graders	21 516	Cigarette use past month: −0.0208 (SE = 0.0100), p = < .05	Favors intervention	Moderate
Abouk 2024⁴⁹	N/A	N/A	Cigarette sales: −.00714 (0.0334) (p < .05)	Favors intervention	Serious
Hansen 2023⁵⁰	18–20 year olds	95 557	Smoking participation: −0.037 (SE = 0.009), p = < .01	Favors intervention	Moderate
Hansen 2023⁵⁰	18–20 year olds	87 612	Smoking participation: −0.009 (SE = 0.019)	Not significant	Moderate
Tennekoon 2023⁴⁷	18–20 year old (pregnant)	2 140 600	Current smoking at the beginning of pregnancy: −0.0574 (0.0009), p ≤ .01	Favors intervention	Serious
Friedman 2024⁴⁸	18–20 year olds	55 775	Current cigarette use 0.60 (CI 0.45, 0.79), p < .01	Favors intervention	Serious
Friedman 2024⁴⁸	18–20 year olds	Unknown	Current established smoking: 0.38 (0.25, 0.57)	Favors intervention	Serious

(AOR = adjusted odds ratio, APR = adjusted prevalence ratio, ARR = adjusted risk ratio) * per survey, four surveys ^ = statistically significant at p ≤ .05.

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