The ecological factors that may influence a wild animal species’ propensity to acquire and harbour AMR, and the current knowledge lacking in the literature.
| Ecological factor . | Characteristic . | Exposure and acquisition risk . | Current knowledge gaps and needs . |
|---|---|---|---|
| Feeding strategies and foraging behaviour | Nutrition-type | ● AMR profiles are closely tied to feeding strategies. ● Higher frequency of AMR has been found in gut microbiota of carnivores and omnivores than in herbivores. ● Carnivores are likely more exposed to ARB by consumption of contaminated prey species, and omnivorous species are exposed to a wide variety of ARB, both agricultural and anthropogenic. | There is a dearth of information regarding how nutrition-type specifically influences AMR profiles in wildlife. Detailed investigations into the impact of specific diet-types and feeding patterns on resistance determinants and gene acquisition, alongside the shedding ARB across ecosystems are lacking, which also poses public health concerns with regards to urbanized carnivores. |
| Predation and scavenging | ● Predation on peridomestic prey species that may already harbour AMR, could potentiate resistance through trophic levels. ● Predation habits expose species to a wide range of ecosystems, broadening acquisition potential. ● Foraging behaviour is often in proximity to human activity, commonly in refuse and landfills. ● Obligate and facultative scavengers feeding on medicated livestock carcasses or carrion risk exposure to high levels of ARB. ● This behaviour could exert selective pressures on gut microbiota, promoting development and dissemination of novel ARGs. | ● The influence of feeding and hunting strategies on the acquisition of AMR is poorly understood. The question of how scavenging behaviours differ in their contributions to ARB exposure compared to active predation, particularly on live, peridomestic prey is not well-answered. ● Studies could focus on the functional roles of different gut microbes acquired from anthropogenic sources vs those acquired from rural settings such as in proximity to agricultural landscapes, within the context of ARB acquisition, particularly focusing on high-risk clonal lineages that may be more likely acquired from one source over another. | |
| Social behaviour | Aggression and territoriality in disease spread | ● The relationships between wildlife behaviour, social systems, and disease transmission mechanisms between territories and individuals, especially in high-contact environments are acknowledged. ● Aggressive interactions and territorial behaviours (such as biting and excrement-marking) of species living or feeding in competitive environments can facilitate disease transmission. | ● No studies currently exist to determine if or how these aggressive or territorial behaviours may be a risk factor to facilitate AMR acquisition and dissemination in the environment. ● Environmental, longitudinal point-prevalence survey studies examining the correlation between territorial behaviours and AMR presence could be informative. ● Aggressive pack animals such as the Tasmanian Devil, could also be assessed for ARB upon disease outbreaks in the environment in comparison to those in captivity. |
| The ‘Social Microbiome’ | ● Social species living in close proximity and engaging in behaviours like grooming and communal feeding or nesting exhibit similar microbiomes. ● The ‘social microbiome’ suggests that social behaviour may influence the composition of gut microbiota, potentially increasing bacterial exchange and HGT, increasing the likelihood of AMR transmission within groups via faecal contamination. | Effects of the ‘social microbiome’ in HGT leading to transmission of ARB and ARGs remain under-explored. Research must emphasize ecological dynamics of social interactions, in order to determine inter- and intra-species interactions. Further studies are needed to assess how contact within groups and between species may influence microbial community compositions and facilitate bacterial and gene exchange. | |
| Movement and migration | Epidemiological link between habitats | ● Movement of wildlife has been identified as a driver of AMR dissemination in the environment, enabling species to serve as epidemiological links between habitats. ● Wildlife may be transmitting AMR between agricultural, urban, and natural environments by daily movement between these habitats, and contaminating with faeces or direct contact with domestic animals. | ● There is a lack of data surrounding AMR transmission dynamics across ecosystems due to wildlife movement and how these dynamics vary across different species and habitat. There is a need for deeper exploration into how human-induced habitat alteration (e.g. urbanization and intensification of agricultural practices) may be impacting movement patterns and consequently AMR spread. ● Limited information exists regarding reintroduction or translocation of wild animals following antimicrobial treatments in the context of conservation or in cases of wildlife rehabilitation. Research is lacking regarding whether this facilitates the spread of novel ARGs in surrounding wildlife. |
| Intercontinental vectors | ● Wildlife species can act as vectors of ARB, carrying it over long distances during migration, through their excreta, facilitating intercontinental spread of AMR. ● Human-associated resistance has been detected in wildlife in very remote regions of the world, implying that migratory wildlife may play a role in AMR transmission, not just to other environments but to other wildlife species in those regions. | ● Most existing research relies on cross-sectional ‘snapshots’ on the presence of AMR in migratory wildlife, which fails to capture long-term trends. Limited longitudinal studies exist that monitor AMR in wildlife throughout migration to understand persistence and transmission dynamics, particularly with regards to external factors such as climate change that may alter migration pathways. ● More comprehensive studies are also required understand the genetic diversity and strain types of ARB acquired and disseminated by wildlife vectors, alongside the extent and duration of ARB shedding. |
| Ecological factor . | Characteristic . | Exposure and acquisition risk . | Current knowledge gaps and needs . |
|---|---|---|---|
| Feeding strategies and foraging behaviour | Nutrition-type | ● AMR profiles are closely tied to feeding strategies. ● Higher frequency of AMR has been found in gut microbiota of carnivores and omnivores than in herbivores. ● Carnivores are likely more exposed to ARB by consumption of contaminated prey species, and omnivorous species are exposed to a wide variety of ARB, both agricultural and anthropogenic. | There is a dearth of information regarding how nutrition-type specifically influences AMR profiles in wildlife. Detailed investigations into the impact of specific diet-types and feeding patterns on resistance determinants and gene acquisition, alongside the shedding ARB across ecosystems are lacking, which also poses public health concerns with regards to urbanized carnivores. |
| Predation and scavenging | ● Predation on peridomestic prey species that may already harbour AMR, could potentiate resistance through trophic levels. ● Predation habits expose species to a wide range of ecosystems, broadening acquisition potential. ● Foraging behaviour is often in proximity to human activity, commonly in refuse and landfills. ● Obligate and facultative scavengers feeding on medicated livestock carcasses or carrion risk exposure to high levels of ARB. ● This behaviour could exert selective pressures on gut microbiota, promoting development and dissemination of novel ARGs. | ● The influence of feeding and hunting strategies on the acquisition of AMR is poorly understood. The question of how scavenging behaviours differ in their contributions to ARB exposure compared to active predation, particularly on live, peridomestic prey is not well-answered. ● Studies could focus on the functional roles of different gut microbes acquired from anthropogenic sources vs those acquired from rural settings such as in proximity to agricultural landscapes, within the context of ARB acquisition, particularly focusing on high-risk clonal lineages that may be more likely acquired from one source over another. | |
| Social behaviour | Aggression and territoriality in disease spread | ● The relationships between wildlife behaviour, social systems, and disease transmission mechanisms between territories and individuals, especially in high-contact environments are acknowledged. ● Aggressive interactions and territorial behaviours (such as biting and excrement-marking) of species living or feeding in competitive environments can facilitate disease transmission. | ● No studies currently exist to determine if or how these aggressive or territorial behaviours may be a risk factor to facilitate AMR acquisition and dissemination in the environment. ● Environmental, longitudinal point-prevalence survey studies examining the correlation between territorial behaviours and AMR presence could be informative. ● Aggressive pack animals such as the Tasmanian Devil, could also be assessed for ARB upon disease outbreaks in the environment in comparison to those in captivity. |
| The ‘Social Microbiome’ | ● Social species living in close proximity and engaging in behaviours like grooming and communal feeding or nesting exhibit similar microbiomes. ● The ‘social microbiome’ suggests that social behaviour may influence the composition of gut microbiota, potentially increasing bacterial exchange and HGT, increasing the likelihood of AMR transmission within groups via faecal contamination. | Effects of the ‘social microbiome’ in HGT leading to transmission of ARB and ARGs remain under-explored. Research must emphasize ecological dynamics of social interactions, in order to determine inter- and intra-species interactions. Further studies are needed to assess how contact within groups and between species may influence microbial community compositions and facilitate bacterial and gene exchange. | |
| Movement and migration | Epidemiological link between habitats | ● Movement of wildlife has been identified as a driver of AMR dissemination in the environment, enabling species to serve as epidemiological links between habitats. ● Wildlife may be transmitting AMR between agricultural, urban, and natural environments by daily movement between these habitats, and contaminating with faeces or direct contact with domestic animals. | ● There is a lack of data surrounding AMR transmission dynamics across ecosystems due to wildlife movement and how these dynamics vary across different species and habitat. There is a need for deeper exploration into how human-induced habitat alteration (e.g. urbanization and intensification of agricultural practices) may be impacting movement patterns and consequently AMR spread. ● Limited information exists regarding reintroduction or translocation of wild animals following antimicrobial treatments in the context of conservation or in cases of wildlife rehabilitation. Research is lacking regarding whether this facilitates the spread of novel ARGs in surrounding wildlife. |
| Intercontinental vectors | ● Wildlife species can act as vectors of ARB, carrying it over long distances during migration, through their excreta, facilitating intercontinental spread of AMR. ● Human-associated resistance has been detected in wildlife in very remote regions of the world, implying that migratory wildlife may play a role in AMR transmission, not just to other environments but to other wildlife species in those regions. | ● Most existing research relies on cross-sectional ‘snapshots’ on the presence of AMR in migratory wildlife, which fails to capture long-term trends. Limited longitudinal studies exist that monitor AMR in wildlife throughout migration to understand persistence and transmission dynamics, particularly with regards to external factors such as climate change that may alter migration pathways. ● More comprehensive studies are also required understand the genetic diversity and strain types of ARB acquired and disseminated by wildlife vectors, alongside the extent and duration of ARB shedding. |
AMR, antimicrobial resistance; ARB, antimicrobial resistant bacteria; ARG, antimicrobial resistance gene; and HGT, horizontal gene transfer.
The ecological factors that may influence a wild animal species’ propensity to acquire and harbour AMR, and the current knowledge lacking in the literature.
| Ecological factor . | Characteristic . | Exposure and acquisition risk . | Current knowledge gaps and needs . |
|---|---|---|---|
| Feeding strategies and foraging behaviour | Nutrition-type | ● AMR profiles are closely tied to feeding strategies. ● Higher frequency of AMR has been found in gut microbiota of carnivores and omnivores than in herbivores. ● Carnivores are likely more exposed to ARB by consumption of contaminated prey species, and omnivorous species are exposed to a wide variety of ARB, both agricultural and anthropogenic. | There is a dearth of information regarding how nutrition-type specifically influences AMR profiles in wildlife. Detailed investigations into the impact of specific diet-types and feeding patterns on resistance determinants and gene acquisition, alongside the shedding ARB across ecosystems are lacking, which also poses public health concerns with regards to urbanized carnivores. |
| Predation and scavenging | ● Predation on peridomestic prey species that may already harbour AMR, could potentiate resistance through trophic levels. ● Predation habits expose species to a wide range of ecosystems, broadening acquisition potential. ● Foraging behaviour is often in proximity to human activity, commonly in refuse and landfills. ● Obligate and facultative scavengers feeding on medicated livestock carcasses or carrion risk exposure to high levels of ARB. ● This behaviour could exert selective pressures on gut microbiota, promoting development and dissemination of novel ARGs. | ● The influence of feeding and hunting strategies on the acquisition of AMR is poorly understood. The question of how scavenging behaviours differ in their contributions to ARB exposure compared to active predation, particularly on live, peridomestic prey is not well-answered. ● Studies could focus on the functional roles of different gut microbes acquired from anthropogenic sources vs those acquired from rural settings such as in proximity to agricultural landscapes, within the context of ARB acquisition, particularly focusing on high-risk clonal lineages that may be more likely acquired from one source over another. | |
| Social behaviour | Aggression and territoriality in disease spread | ● The relationships between wildlife behaviour, social systems, and disease transmission mechanisms between territories and individuals, especially in high-contact environments are acknowledged. ● Aggressive interactions and territorial behaviours (such as biting and excrement-marking) of species living or feeding in competitive environments can facilitate disease transmission. | ● No studies currently exist to determine if or how these aggressive or territorial behaviours may be a risk factor to facilitate AMR acquisition and dissemination in the environment. ● Environmental, longitudinal point-prevalence survey studies examining the correlation between territorial behaviours and AMR presence could be informative. ● Aggressive pack animals such as the Tasmanian Devil, could also be assessed for ARB upon disease outbreaks in the environment in comparison to those in captivity. |
| The ‘Social Microbiome’ | ● Social species living in close proximity and engaging in behaviours like grooming and communal feeding or nesting exhibit similar microbiomes. ● The ‘social microbiome’ suggests that social behaviour may influence the composition of gut microbiota, potentially increasing bacterial exchange and HGT, increasing the likelihood of AMR transmission within groups via faecal contamination. | Effects of the ‘social microbiome’ in HGT leading to transmission of ARB and ARGs remain under-explored. Research must emphasize ecological dynamics of social interactions, in order to determine inter- and intra-species interactions. Further studies are needed to assess how contact within groups and between species may influence microbial community compositions and facilitate bacterial and gene exchange. | |
| Movement and migration | Epidemiological link between habitats | ● Movement of wildlife has been identified as a driver of AMR dissemination in the environment, enabling species to serve as epidemiological links between habitats. ● Wildlife may be transmitting AMR between agricultural, urban, and natural environments by daily movement between these habitats, and contaminating with faeces or direct contact with domestic animals. | ● There is a lack of data surrounding AMR transmission dynamics across ecosystems due to wildlife movement and how these dynamics vary across different species and habitat. There is a need for deeper exploration into how human-induced habitat alteration (e.g. urbanization and intensification of agricultural practices) may be impacting movement patterns and consequently AMR spread. ● Limited information exists regarding reintroduction or translocation of wild animals following antimicrobial treatments in the context of conservation or in cases of wildlife rehabilitation. Research is lacking regarding whether this facilitates the spread of novel ARGs in surrounding wildlife. |
| Intercontinental vectors | ● Wildlife species can act as vectors of ARB, carrying it over long distances during migration, through their excreta, facilitating intercontinental spread of AMR. ● Human-associated resistance has been detected in wildlife in very remote regions of the world, implying that migratory wildlife may play a role in AMR transmission, not just to other environments but to other wildlife species in those regions. | ● Most existing research relies on cross-sectional ‘snapshots’ on the presence of AMR in migratory wildlife, which fails to capture long-term trends. Limited longitudinal studies exist that monitor AMR in wildlife throughout migration to understand persistence and transmission dynamics, particularly with regards to external factors such as climate change that may alter migration pathways. ● More comprehensive studies are also required understand the genetic diversity and strain types of ARB acquired and disseminated by wildlife vectors, alongside the extent and duration of ARB shedding. |
| Ecological factor . | Characteristic . | Exposure and acquisition risk . | Current knowledge gaps and needs . |
|---|---|---|---|
| Feeding strategies and foraging behaviour | Nutrition-type | ● AMR profiles are closely tied to feeding strategies. ● Higher frequency of AMR has been found in gut microbiota of carnivores and omnivores than in herbivores. ● Carnivores are likely more exposed to ARB by consumption of contaminated prey species, and omnivorous species are exposed to a wide variety of ARB, both agricultural and anthropogenic. | There is a dearth of information regarding how nutrition-type specifically influences AMR profiles in wildlife. Detailed investigations into the impact of specific diet-types and feeding patterns on resistance determinants and gene acquisition, alongside the shedding ARB across ecosystems are lacking, which also poses public health concerns with regards to urbanized carnivores. |
| Predation and scavenging | ● Predation on peridomestic prey species that may already harbour AMR, could potentiate resistance through trophic levels. ● Predation habits expose species to a wide range of ecosystems, broadening acquisition potential. ● Foraging behaviour is often in proximity to human activity, commonly in refuse and landfills. ● Obligate and facultative scavengers feeding on medicated livestock carcasses or carrion risk exposure to high levels of ARB. ● This behaviour could exert selective pressures on gut microbiota, promoting development and dissemination of novel ARGs. | ● The influence of feeding and hunting strategies on the acquisition of AMR is poorly understood. The question of how scavenging behaviours differ in their contributions to ARB exposure compared to active predation, particularly on live, peridomestic prey is not well-answered. ● Studies could focus on the functional roles of different gut microbes acquired from anthropogenic sources vs those acquired from rural settings such as in proximity to agricultural landscapes, within the context of ARB acquisition, particularly focusing on high-risk clonal lineages that may be more likely acquired from one source over another. | |
| Social behaviour | Aggression and territoriality in disease spread | ● The relationships between wildlife behaviour, social systems, and disease transmission mechanisms between territories and individuals, especially in high-contact environments are acknowledged. ● Aggressive interactions and territorial behaviours (such as biting and excrement-marking) of species living or feeding in competitive environments can facilitate disease transmission. | ● No studies currently exist to determine if or how these aggressive or territorial behaviours may be a risk factor to facilitate AMR acquisition and dissemination in the environment. ● Environmental, longitudinal point-prevalence survey studies examining the correlation between territorial behaviours and AMR presence could be informative. ● Aggressive pack animals such as the Tasmanian Devil, could also be assessed for ARB upon disease outbreaks in the environment in comparison to those in captivity. |
| The ‘Social Microbiome’ | ● Social species living in close proximity and engaging in behaviours like grooming and communal feeding or nesting exhibit similar microbiomes. ● The ‘social microbiome’ suggests that social behaviour may influence the composition of gut microbiota, potentially increasing bacterial exchange and HGT, increasing the likelihood of AMR transmission within groups via faecal contamination. | Effects of the ‘social microbiome’ in HGT leading to transmission of ARB and ARGs remain under-explored. Research must emphasize ecological dynamics of social interactions, in order to determine inter- and intra-species interactions. Further studies are needed to assess how contact within groups and between species may influence microbial community compositions and facilitate bacterial and gene exchange. | |
| Movement and migration | Epidemiological link between habitats | ● Movement of wildlife has been identified as a driver of AMR dissemination in the environment, enabling species to serve as epidemiological links between habitats. ● Wildlife may be transmitting AMR between agricultural, urban, and natural environments by daily movement between these habitats, and contaminating with faeces or direct contact with domestic animals. | ● There is a lack of data surrounding AMR transmission dynamics across ecosystems due to wildlife movement and how these dynamics vary across different species and habitat. There is a need for deeper exploration into how human-induced habitat alteration (e.g. urbanization and intensification of agricultural practices) may be impacting movement patterns and consequently AMR spread. ● Limited information exists regarding reintroduction or translocation of wild animals following antimicrobial treatments in the context of conservation or in cases of wildlife rehabilitation. Research is lacking regarding whether this facilitates the spread of novel ARGs in surrounding wildlife. |
| Intercontinental vectors | ● Wildlife species can act as vectors of ARB, carrying it over long distances during migration, through their excreta, facilitating intercontinental spread of AMR. ● Human-associated resistance has been detected in wildlife in very remote regions of the world, implying that migratory wildlife may play a role in AMR transmission, not just to other environments but to other wildlife species in those regions. | ● Most existing research relies on cross-sectional ‘snapshots’ on the presence of AMR in migratory wildlife, which fails to capture long-term trends. Limited longitudinal studies exist that monitor AMR in wildlife throughout migration to understand persistence and transmission dynamics, particularly with regards to external factors such as climate change that may alter migration pathways. ● More comprehensive studies are also required understand the genetic diversity and strain types of ARB acquired and disseminated by wildlife vectors, alongside the extent and duration of ARB shedding. |
AMR, antimicrobial resistance; ARB, antimicrobial resistant bacteria; ARG, antimicrobial resistance gene; and HGT, horizontal gene transfer.
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