Table 4. Open in new tab The effects of...

	Long difference, OLS
Panel A. Manufacturing employment
Exposure to robots (instrument)	−0.097	−0.592	−0.060	−0.320***	−0.506*	−0.206**	−0.233	−0.238***
	(0.523)	(0.701)	(0.051)	(0.085)	(0.302)	(0.076)	(0.178)	(0.080)
Exposure to Chinese imports (instrument)	−0.017***	0.025**	−0.011	−0.104**	0.002	−0.049***	0.008	−0.216***
	(0.004)	(0.010)	(0.013)	(0.041)	(0.006)	(0.013)	(0.013)	(0.044)
R-squared	0.486	0.557	0.357	0.886	0.340	0.976	0.448	0.604
Panel B. Non-manufacturing employment
Exposure to robots (instrument)	0.625	0.446	−0.043	−0.225	−1.391**	0.279**	−0.075	−0.144
	(0.762)	(0.366)	(0.032)	(0.141)	(0.607)	(0.131)	(0.119)	(0.186)
Exposure to Chinese imports (instrument)	0.014	−0.001	−0.049***	0.132	−0.008	0.084***	−0.006	−0.032
	(0.015)	(0.006)	(0.019)	(0.095)	(0.010)	(0.029)	(0.011)	(0.085)
R-squared	0.353	0.848	0.334	0.715	0.416	0.906	0.583	0.365
Panel C. The effect of interaction between robots and Chinese imports on manufacturing employment
Exposure to robots (instrument)	−0.038	−0.605	−0.138*	−0.187	−1.859***	−0.156	−0.235	−0.248*
	(0.482)	(0.689)	(0.082)	(0.209)	(0.605)	(0.117)	(0.205)	(0.150)
Exposure to Chinese imports (instrument)	−0.009	0.001	−0.020	−0.098**	−0.006	−0.041	0.008	−0.217***
	(0.008)	(0.014)	(0.014)	(0.046)	(0.006)	(0.028)	(0.015)	(0.044)
Exposure to robots × Chinese imports	−0.120	0.087***	0.012*	−0.046	0.824**	−0.024	0.003	0.011
	(0.076)	(0.032)	(0.007)	(0.078)	(0.363)	(0.062)	(0.346)	(0.120)
R-squared	0.495	0.597	0.378	0.887	0.458	0.976	0.448	0.604
Observations	99	70	319	110	74	49	100	352
Regional FE	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓
Baseline controls	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓

Long difference, OLS

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

(8)

Denmark

Finland

Germany

Italy

Norway

Spain

Sweden

United Kingdom

Panel A. Manufacturing employment

Exposure to robots (instrument)

−0.097

−0.592

−0.060

−0.320***

−0.506*

−0.206**

−0.233

−0.238***

(0.523)

(0.701)

(0.051)

(0.085)

(0.302)

(0.076)

(0.178)

(0.080)

Exposure to Chinese imports (instrument)

−0.017***

0.025**

−0.011

−0.104**

0.002

−0.049***

0.008

−0.216***

(0.004)

(0.010)

(0.013)

(0.041)

(0.006)

(0.013)

(0.044)

R-squared

0.486

0.557

0.357

0.886

0.340

0.976

0.448

0.604

Panel B. Non-manufacturing employment

Exposure to robots (instrument)

0.625

0.446

−0.043

−0.225

−1.391**

0.279**

−0.075

−0.144

(0.762)

(0.366)

(0.032)

(0.141)

(0.607)

(0.131)

(0.119)

(0.186)

Exposure to Chinese imports (instrument)

0.014

−0.001

−0.049***

0.132

−0.008

0.084***

−0.006

−0.032

(0.015)

(0.006)

(0.019)

(0.095)

(0.010)

(0.029)

(0.011)

(0.085)

R-squared

0.353

0.848

0.334

0.715

0.416

0.906

0.583

0.365

Panel C. The effect of interaction between robots and Chinese imports on manufacturing employment

Exposure to robots (instrument)

−0.038

−0.605

−0.138*

−0.187

−1.859***

−0.156

−0.235

−0.248*

(0.482)

(0.689)

(0.082)

(0.209)

(0.605)

(0.117)

(0.205)

(0.150)

Exposure to Chinese imports (instrument)

−0.009

0.001

−0.020

−0.098**

−0.006

−0.041

0.008

−0.217***

(0.008)

(0.014)

(0.046)

(0.006)

(0.028)

(0.015)

(0.044)

Exposure to robots × Chinese imports

−0.120

0.087***

0.012*

−0.046

0.824**

−0.024

0.003

0.011

(0.076)

(0.032)

(0.007)

(0.078)

(0.363)

(0.062)

(0.346)

(0.120)

R-squared

0.495

0.597

0.378

0.887

0.458

0.976

0.448

0.604

Observations

319

110

100

352

Regional FE

✓

Baseline controls

✓

	Long difference, OLS
Panel A. Manufacturing employment
Exposure to robots (instrument)	−0.097	−0.592	−0.060	−0.320***	−0.506*	−0.206**	−0.233	−0.238***
	(0.523)	(0.701)	(0.051)	(0.085)	(0.302)	(0.076)	(0.178)	(0.080)
Exposure to Chinese imports (instrument)	−0.017***	0.025**	−0.011	−0.104**	0.002	−0.049***	0.008	−0.216***
	(0.004)	(0.010)	(0.013)	(0.041)	(0.006)	(0.013)	(0.013)	(0.044)
R-squared	0.486	0.557	0.357	0.886	0.340	0.976	0.448	0.604
Panel B. Non-manufacturing employment
Exposure to robots (instrument)	0.625	0.446	−0.043	−0.225	−1.391**	0.279**	−0.075	−0.144
	(0.762)	(0.366)	(0.032)	(0.141)	(0.607)	(0.131)	(0.119)	(0.186)
Exposure to Chinese imports (instrument)	0.014	−0.001	−0.049***	0.132	−0.008	0.084***	−0.006	−0.032
	(0.015)	(0.006)	(0.019)	(0.095)	(0.010)	(0.029)	(0.011)	(0.085)
R-squared	0.353	0.848	0.334	0.715	0.416	0.906	0.583	0.365
Panel C. The effect of interaction between robots and Chinese imports on manufacturing employment
Exposure to robots (instrument)	−0.038	−0.605	−0.138*	−0.187	−1.859***	−0.156	−0.235	−0.248*
	(0.482)	(0.689)	(0.082)	(0.209)	(0.605)	(0.117)	(0.205)	(0.150)
Exposure to Chinese imports (instrument)	−0.009	0.001	−0.020	−0.098**	−0.006	−0.041	0.008	−0.217***
	(0.008)	(0.014)	(0.014)	(0.046)	(0.006)	(0.028)	(0.015)	(0.044)
Exposure to robots × Chinese imports	−0.120	0.087***	0.012*	−0.046	0.824**	−0.024	0.003	0.011
	(0.076)	(0.032)	(0.007)	(0.078)	(0.363)	(0.062)	(0.346)	(0.120)
R-squared	0.495	0.597	0.378	0.887	0.458	0.976	0.448	0.604
Observations	99	70	319	110	74	49	100	352
Regional FE	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓
Baseline controls	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓

Table 4.

Open in new tab

The effects of robots and Chinese imports on manufacturing and non-manufacturing employment

	Long difference, OLS
	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)	(7)	(8)
	Denmark	Finland	Germany	Italy	Norway	Spain	Sweden	United Kingdom
Panel A. Manufacturing employment
Exposure to robots (instrument)	−0.097	−0.592	−0.060	−0.320***	−0.506*	−0.206**	−0.233	−0.238***
	(0.523)	(0.701)	(0.051)	(0.085)	(0.302)	(0.076)	(0.178)	(0.080)
Exposure to Chinese imports (instrument)	−0.017***	0.025**	−0.011	−0.104**	0.002	−0.049***	0.008	−0.216***
	(0.004)	(0.010)	(0.013)	(0.041)	(0.006)	(0.013)	(0.013)	(0.044)
R-squared	0.486	0.557	0.357	0.886	0.340	0.976	0.448	0.604
Panel B. Non-manufacturing employment
Exposure to robots (instrument)	0.625	0.446	−0.043	−0.225	−1.391**	0.279**	−0.075	−0.144
	(0.762)	(0.366)	(0.032)	(0.141)	(0.607)	(0.131)	(0.119)	(0.186)
Exposure to Chinese imports (instrument)	0.014	−0.001	−0.049***	0.132	−0.008	0.084***	−0.006	−0.032
	(0.015)	(0.006)	(0.019)	(0.095)	(0.010)	(0.029)	(0.011)	(0.085)
R-squared	0.353	0.848	0.334	0.715	0.416	0.906	0.583	0.365
Panel C. The effect of interaction between robots and Chinese imports on manufacturing employment
Exposure to robots (instrument)	−0.038	−0.605	−0.138*	−0.187	−1.859***	−0.156	−0.235	−0.248*
	(0.482)	(0.689)	(0.082)	(0.209)	(0.605)	(0.117)	(0.205)	(0.150)
Exposure to Chinese imports (instrument)	−0.009	0.001	−0.020	−0.098**	−0.006	−0.041	0.008	−0.217***
	(0.008)	(0.014)	(0.014)	(0.046)	(0.006)	(0.028)	(0.015)	(0.044)
Exposure to robots × Chinese imports	−0.120	0.087***	0.012*	−0.046	0.824**	−0.024	0.003	0.011
	(0.076)	(0.032)	(0.007)	(0.078)	(0.363)	(0.062)	(0.346)	(0.120)
R-squared	0.495	0.597	0.378	0.887	0.458	0.976	0.448	0.604
Observations	99	70	319	110	74	49	100	352
Regional FE	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓
Baseline controls	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓

	Long difference, OLS
	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)	(7)	(8)
	Denmark	Finland	Germany	Italy	Norway	Spain	Sweden	United Kingdom
Panel A. Manufacturing employment
Exposure to robots (instrument)	−0.097	−0.592	−0.060	−0.320***	−0.506*	−0.206**	−0.233	−0.238***
	(0.523)	(0.701)	(0.051)	(0.085)	(0.302)	(0.076)	(0.178)	(0.080)
Exposure to Chinese imports (instrument)	−0.017***	0.025**	−0.011	−0.104**	0.002	−0.049***	0.008	−0.216***
	(0.004)	(0.010)	(0.013)	(0.041)	(0.006)	(0.013)	(0.013)	(0.044)
R-squared	0.486	0.557	0.357	0.886	0.340	0.976	0.448	0.604
Panel B. Non-manufacturing employment
Exposure to robots (instrument)	0.625	0.446	−0.043	−0.225	−1.391**	0.279**	−0.075	−0.144
	(0.762)	(0.366)	(0.032)	(0.141)	(0.607)	(0.131)	(0.119)	(0.186)
Exposure to Chinese imports (instrument)	0.014	−0.001	−0.049***	0.132	−0.008	0.084***	−0.006	−0.032
	(0.015)	(0.006)	(0.019)	(0.095)	(0.010)	(0.029)	(0.011)	(0.085)
R-squared	0.353	0.848	0.334	0.715	0.416	0.906	0.583	0.365
Panel C. The effect of interaction between robots and Chinese imports on manufacturing employment
Exposure to robots (instrument)	−0.038	−0.605	−0.138*	−0.187	−1.859***	−0.156	−0.235	−0.248*
	(0.482)	(0.689)	(0.082)	(0.209)	(0.605)	(0.117)	(0.205)	(0.150)
Exposure to Chinese imports (instrument)	−0.009	0.001	−0.020	−0.098**	−0.006	−0.041	0.008	−0.217***
	(0.008)	(0.014)	(0.014)	(0.046)	(0.006)	(0.028)	(0.015)	(0.044)
Exposure to robots × Chinese imports	−0.120	0.087***	0.012*	−0.046	0.824**	−0.024	0.003	0.011
	(0.076)	(0.032)	(0.007)	(0.078)	(0.363)	(0.062)	(0.346)	(0.120)
R-squared	0.495	0.597	0.378	0.887	0.458	0.976	0.448	0.604
Observations	99	70	319	110	74	49	100	352
Regional FE	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓
Baseline controls	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓

This table presents OLS estimates of the impact of the exposure to robots and Chinese import competition on manufacturing employment in panel A as well as non-manufacturing employment in panel B. Panel C presents OLS estimates of the impact of the exposure to robots with the interaction between robots and Chinese imports. The outcome variables are the long difference in manufacturing or non-manufacturing employment-to-population ratio. Regressions are weighted by population in the start-of-period. The list of covariates is documented in Appendix A. The missing geographic values in Germany are due to confidentiality-related data limitations. Statistical significance based on robust standard errors (reported in parentheses) is denoted by ***P < 0.01, **P < 0.05, and *P < 0.10.

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