Summary of candidate antioxidant genes measured in monarch butterfly larvae (Danaus plexippus)
| Gene | Protein | Role in oxidative stress or heavy metal regulation |
| SOD1 | Superoxide dismutase | First line of defense against ROS: converts superoxide into hydrogen peroxide (Sagara et al., 1998) |
| CAT | Catalase | Converts hydrogen peroxide into oxygen and water (Sagara et al., 1998) |
| PRDX1 | Peroxiredoxin | Converts hydrogen peroxide into water (Sagara et al., 1998) |
| TSA1 | Thioredoxin peroxidase | Involved in conversion of hydrogen peroxide to water (Sagara et al., 1998) |
| FER1HCH | Ferritin | Transport and storage of metals, especially iron and zinc (Price & Joshi, 1982) |
| TSF1 | Transferrin | Regulates levels of free iron (Price & Joshi, 1982) |
| GSTD1 | Glutathione s‐transferase delta 1 | Involved in antioxidant responses and detoxification (Corona & Robinson, 2006) |
| GSTO3 | Glutathione s‐transferase omega 3 | Involved in antioxidant responses to heat and heavy metal stress, particularly in insects (Lee et al., 2015) |
| TH | Tyrosine hydroxylase | Initial enzyme in melanin pathway; catalyzes conversion of tyrosine into L‐DOPA (Nagatsu, 1995) |
| Gene | Protein | Role in oxidative stress or heavy metal regulation |
| SOD1 | Superoxide dismutase | First line of defense against ROS: converts superoxide into hydrogen peroxide (Sagara et al., 1998) |
| CAT | Catalase | Converts hydrogen peroxide into oxygen and water (Sagara et al., 1998) |
| PRDX1 | Peroxiredoxin | Converts hydrogen peroxide into water (Sagara et al., 1998) |
| TSA1 | Thioredoxin peroxidase | Involved in conversion of hydrogen peroxide to water (Sagara et al., 1998) |
| FER1HCH | Ferritin | Transport and storage of metals, especially iron and zinc (Price & Joshi, 1982) |
| TSF1 | Transferrin | Regulates levels of free iron (Price & Joshi, 1982) |
| GSTD1 | Glutathione s‐transferase delta 1 | Involved in antioxidant responses and detoxification (Corona & Robinson, 2006) |
| GSTO3 | Glutathione s‐transferase omega 3 | Involved in antioxidant responses to heat and heavy metal stress, particularly in insects (Lee et al., 2015) |
| TH | Tyrosine hydroxylase | Initial enzyme in melanin pathway; catalyzes conversion of tyrosine into L‐DOPA (Nagatsu, 1995) |
Summary of candidate antioxidant genes measured in monarch butterfly larvae (Danaus plexippus)
| Gene | Protein | Role in oxidative stress or heavy metal regulation |
| SOD1 | Superoxide dismutase | First line of defense against ROS: converts superoxide into hydrogen peroxide (Sagara et al., 1998) |
| CAT | Catalase | Converts hydrogen peroxide into oxygen and water (Sagara et al., 1998) |
| PRDX1 | Peroxiredoxin | Converts hydrogen peroxide into water (Sagara et al., 1998) |
| TSA1 | Thioredoxin peroxidase | Involved in conversion of hydrogen peroxide to water (Sagara et al., 1998) |
| FER1HCH | Ferritin | Transport and storage of metals, especially iron and zinc (Price & Joshi, 1982) |
| TSF1 | Transferrin | Regulates levels of free iron (Price & Joshi, 1982) |
| GSTD1 | Glutathione s‐transferase delta 1 | Involved in antioxidant responses and detoxification (Corona & Robinson, 2006) |
| GSTO3 | Glutathione s‐transferase omega 3 | Involved in antioxidant responses to heat and heavy metal stress, particularly in insects (Lee et al., 2015) |
| TH | Tyrosine hydroxylase | Initial enzyme in melanin pathway; catalyzes conversion of tyrosine into L‐DOPA (Nagatsu, 1995) |
| Gene | Protein | Role in oxidative stress or heavy metal regulation |
| SOD1 | Superoxide dismutase | First line of defense against ROS: converts superoxide into hydrogen peroxide (Sagara et al., 1998) |
| CAT | Catalase | Converts hydrogen peroxide into oxygen and water (Sagara et al., 1998) |
| PRDX1 | Peroxiredoxin | Converts hydrogen peroxide into water (Sagara et al., 1998) |
| TSA1 | Thioredoxin peroxidase | Involved in conversion of hydrogen peroxide to water (Sagara et al., 1998) |
| FER1HCH | Ferritin | Transport and storage of metals, especially iron and zinc (Price & Joshi, 1982) |
| TSF1 | Transferrin | Regulates levels of free iron (Price & Joshi, 1982) |
| GSTD1 | Glutathione s‐transferase delta 1 | Involved in antioxidant responses and detoxification (Corona & Robinson, 2006) |
| GSTO3 | Glutathione s‐transferase omega 3 | Involved in antioxidant responses to heat and heavy metal stress, particularly in insects (Lee et al., 2015) |
| TH | Tyrosine hydroxylase | Initial enzyme in melanin pathway; catalyzes conversion of tyrosine into L‐DOPA (Nagatsu, 1995) |
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