Guidelines per main category of practice, for the five ecology-based agriculture systems evaluated in this review. Acronyms: CA—conservation agriculture; SS—sewage sludge; MT—minimum tillage; GMO—genetically modified organism; Pr.—principles.
| Categories of practices . | Biodynamic farming1 . | Organic agriculture2 . | Agroecology3 . | Permaculture4 . | Conservation agriculture5 . |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1. Fertilization | RequirementsUse only substances that are on an allowed products list: appendix B of the DABFS.● Plant-derived fertilizers● Animal-derived fertilizers: manure (max 56 manure unit/acre), fish, bone meal, processing by-products● Microbiological-derived fertilizers● Legumes/nutrient catch crops● Biodynamic preparations refer to appendix J of the DABFS● Biodynamic compost● Naturally occurring mineral fertilizers (Rock dust, clays, lime fertilizer)Highly regulated● Amount of fertility that can be imported and applied● Origin of the fertilizer: distance from the farm, off-farm manure sources should come from certified organic livestock production minimum● Raw manure/urine● Approved P and K salts, Mg sulphate, sulfur and trace mineralsProhibitedAll products not on the list● Synthetic fertilizers or fertilizers made soluble by chemical methods, e.g. urea, superphosphates, sodium (chilean) nitrate● Any materials that may contain contaminants or toxins: organic wastes from municipal and industrial sources (SS), or from synthetic, chemically farmed agriculture | RequirementsUse only substances that are on an allowed products list: appendix 2 of the IFOAM.● Plant-derived fertilizers● Animal-derived fertilizers: manure, blood, bone meal, fish product, etc.● Microbiological-derived fertilizers● Compost and worm compost● Nitrogen fixation from plants● Biodynamic preparationsHighly regulated● Naturally occurring mineral fertilizers (Rock phosphate, Elemental sulfur, Potassium sulfate). Only as a supplement to biologically-based fertility methods, use restricted to cases where nutrient deficiency is documented by testing or diagnosed by an independent expertProhibitedAll products not on the list● Sewage sludge● Synthetic fertilizers or fertilizers made soluble by chemical methods, e.g. urea, superphosphates, sodium (chilean) nitrate | Applicable principlesPr. 1. RecyclingPr. 2. Input reductionPr. 3. Soil healthFertilization practices are diverse and adapted to local conditions and needs, but prioritize the use of natural and organic sources of nutrients.● Plant-derived fertilizers● Animal-derived fertilizers● Microbiological-derived fertilizers● Compost and worm compost● Split fertilization (to reduce the amount used)● Mineral fertilizersDiscouragedDoes not comply with the principles:● Synthetic fertilizers● Any materials that may contain contaminants or toxins, including sewage sludge | Applicable principlesPr. 2. Catch and Store Energy—Organic mulch application.Pr. 5. Use and Value Renewable Resources and Services—Legumes and animal manure as nutrient source, Mycorrhizal fungi.Pr. 6. Produce no Waste—Animal manure, Human excreta, Waste products as animal feed. | Applicable principlesPr. 2. Keeping the soil covered—crop residues are left on the soil surface.No fertilizer limitationfertilizers aren't part of the three CA fundamental principles. |
| 2. Tillage management | ● Light tillage is allowedProhibited● Bare tillage year-round | ● No tillage limitationRecommendations● Prevent erosion and minimize loss of topsoil (MT, maintenance of soil plant cover, etc.) | Applicable principlesPr. 2. Input reduction (petrol)Pr. 3. Soil health● Reduced or no tillage● Direct seeding into cover crops/mulch | Applicable principlesNo applicable principle | Applicable principlesPr. 1. Minimum mechanical soil disturbance (reducing or eliminating tillage). |
| 3. Weed, pest and disease management | RequirementsUse only substances that are on an allowed products list: appendix C of the DABFS.● Biological pest control: Natural enemies, Trap, pheromones, repellents● Botanical pesticides: plant preparations, plant oils● Microbial pesticides (such as Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) and granuose virus)● Animal-based pesticides: milk products, propolis, etc● Others: homeopathic preparations, soft soapHighly regulated● Mineral-based pesticides: derived from minerals, such as copper salts (Max 3 kg Cu/ha per year), silicates, sulfur, potassium bicarbonate, Fe(III) OrthophosphateRecommendationsAvoid biocides that are not selective to the pest speciesProhibitedSubstances that do not appear on appendix C of the DABFS● Synthetic pesticides● Growth hormones | RequirementsUse only substances that are on an allowed products list: appendix 3 of the IFOAM.● Biological pest control: Natural enemies, Traps, barriers, repellents● Botanical pesticides: Plant preparation, plant oils● Microbial pesticides (such as Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) and Spinosad)● Animal-based pesticides: animal oils, beeswax, etc● Others: Biodynamic preparations, soft soaps, etc.Highly regulated● Mineral-based pesticides: derived from minerals, such as copper salts (Max 6 kg Cu/ha per year), silicates, sulfur, etc.ProhibitedSubstances that do not appear on Appendix 3–IFOAM norms.● Micronutrients in either chloride or nitrate forms● Synthetic pesticides● co-formulants that are carcinogens, mutagens, teratogens or neurotoxins | Applicable principlesPr. 1. RecyclingPr. 2. Input reductionPr. 3. Soil healthPr. 5. BiodiversityPr. 6. SynergyCrop protection seeks for an optimization of interrelated positive processes and mechanisms (based on natural enemies and biodiversity) within the farm, to limit the risks of infection or highprevalence of bio-aggressors, while minimizing synthetic and toxic external inputs.● Botanical and microbial pesticides● Biological pest control● Allelopathic plants in crop rotation● Other biopesticidesDiscouragedDoes not comply with the principles)● synthetic pesticides | Applicable principlesPr. 4. Apply Self-Regulation and Accept Feedback—Enhancement of regulating ecosystem services. | No specific pesticide limitationPesticides are not part of the three CA fundamental principles. However, integrated pest management (IPM) is often recommended. Herbicides are the most commonly used pesticides in CA, due to the weeds infestations problems. |
| 4. Crop irrigation | RecommendationsIrrigation needs are required to be met based on a strategy that emphasize water conservation.● Alternative pumping methods (solar, wind,…)● Irrigation scheduling● Irrigation water should be free of chemical contamination | RecommendationsOrganic management ensures that water resources are used sustainably. | ApplicableprinciplesPr. 1. RecyclingPr. 2. Input reductionAdapt the agrosystem to the local water constraints. Use technologies like drip irrigation to increase water use efficiency. | ApplicableprinciplesPr. 2. Catch and Store Energy—Rainwater harvesting measuresPr. 5. Use and Value Renewable Resources and Services | No specificcrop irrigation limitationsIrrigation is not part of the three CA fundamental principles. |
| 5. Crop choice, spatial distribution and temporal succession | Requirements● Use of seeds coming from Biodynamic sources if possible● Crop rotation● Intercropping● Use of crop residues and/or a cover crop for permanent ground cover● Botanical species diversity● Predator habitat● Timing of planting according to pest life cycleProhibited● Monoculture● Planting the same crop for more than 2 years in a row● Hybrid varieties● GMO and treated seeds● Nanotechnology | Recommendations● Crop rotation● Intercropping● Companion planting (control pests and diseases naturally)● Use organic seed and planting materials (unless unavailable)Prohibited● GMOs● Irradiation● Synthetic growth regulators | Applicable principlePr. 5. BiodiversityPr. 6. SynergyThe objective is to create beneficial biological interactions and synergies amongst the components of agroecosystems.● Diversity of crops● Crop rotation (including cover crops and leguminous plants)● Intercropping and relay intercropping● Agroforestry with timber, fruit or nut trees | Applicable principlePr. 4. Apply Self-Regulation and Accept Feedback—Enhancement of regulating ecosystem servicesPr. 8. Integrate Rather than Segregate—Polyculture (crops)Pr. 10. Use and Value Diversity—Plant species, Pollinator, Habitat, …Pr. 11. Use Edges and Value the Marginal—High field border density, Field margins, Edges with forests | Applicable principlePr. 2. Keeping the soil covered. Use of cover crop for permanent ground cover.Pr. 3. Species diversification and crop rotation. Lengthening and diversifying crop rotations, often by including legume crops. The crop sequences and associations must involve at least three different crops. |
| 6. Management of landscape elements | Requirements● Minimum of 10% of the total effective land set aside as a biodiversity reserve● Buffer zones must be created between certified fields and chemically treated acresForbidden● Clearance of virgin forest | Recommendations● Maintain or enhance biodiversity in crop and non-crop habitats on the farm holding.● Protection of natural enemies of pests through provision of favorable habitat, such as hedges, nesting sites and ecological buffer zones. | Applicable principlePr. 5. BiodiversityPr. 6. SynergyIntegration of semi-natural landscape elements at field, farm and landscape scale (planting and management of vegetation strips and hedges in fields and at field borders). | Applicable principlePr. 2. Catch and Store Energy—Woody elements in agriculturePr. 4. Apply Self-Regulation and Accept Feedback—Enhancement of regulating ecosystem servicesPr. 9. Use Small and Slow Solutions—Agroforestry systemsPr. 10. Use and Value DiversityPr. 11. Use Edges and Value the Marginal—High field border density, edges with forests | Landscape management not taken into account |
| 7. Livestock management | Requirements● Integrating livestock into agronomic systems (except for approved exemption)● Have a mixed livestock population to sustain a self-sufficient system● Access to free range forage and shelter all year (refer to appendix F of DABFS for max stocking rates)● Min of 50% of the feed ration must come from on-farm production, the rest must be certified biodynamic or organicRecommendation● Herbal, homeopathic and anthroposophical treatmentProhibited● Genetically engineered animals● Hormonal treatments● Supplementation with synthetic amino acids● Antibiotics treatment and in feed● Routine and preventive treatments with allopathic medication (except vaccination required by law)● Totally slatted floors● Mutilation | Requirements● Animal production systems raise animals organically from birth or hatching● Animals are allowed to graze in open pastures, and their living conditions are kept clean and comfortableProhibited● Prophylactic use of antibiotics and other allopathic chemical veterinary drugs● Growth hormones● Synthetic feed rations (amino acids, nitrogen compounds, stimulants, appetizers, preservatives, colouring agents, or any solvent-extracted substance)● Mutilation | Applicable principlePr. 1. RecyclingPr. 3. Soil healthPr. 4. Animal health and welfareIntegrating livestock back into agronomic systemsDiscouragedDoes not comply with the principles● Confined animals● Antibiotics and other drugs treatment and in feed● Mutilation● Etc. | Applicable principlePr. 8. Integrate Rather than Segregate—Integration of livestock, fish, and other animals | Livestock management not taken into account(system only for crops) |
| Categories of practices . | Biodynamic farming1 . | Organic agriculture2 . | Agroecology3 . | Permaculture4 . | Conservation agriculture5 . |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1. Fertilization | RequirementsUse only substances that are on an allowed products list: appendix B of the DABFS.● Plant-derived fertilizers● Animal-derived fertilizers: manure (max 56 manure unit/acre), fish, bone meal, processing by-products● Microbiological-derived fertilizers● Legumes/nutrient catch crops● Biodynamic preparations refer to appendix J of the DABFS● Biodynamic compost● Naturally occurring mineral fertilizers (Rock dust, clays, lime fertilizer)Highly regulated● Amount of fertility that can be imported and applied● Origin of the fertilizer: distance from the farm, off-farm manure sources should come from certified organic livestock production minimum● Raw manure/urine● Approved P and K salts, Mg sulphate, sulfur and trace mineralsProhibitedAll products not on the list● Synthetic fertilizers or fertilizers made soluble by chemical methods, e.g. urea, superphosphates, sodium (chilean) nitrate● Any materials that may contain contaminants or toxins: organic wastes from municipal and industrial sources (SS), or from synthetic, chemically farmed agriculture | RequirementsUse only substances that are on an allowed products list: appendix 2 of the IFOAM.● Plant-derived fertilizers● Animal-derived fertilizers: manure, blood, bone meal, fish product, etc.● Microbiological-derived fertilizers● Compost and worm compost● Nitrogen fixation from plants● Biodynamic preparationsHighly regulated● Naturally occurring mineral fertilizers (Rock phosphate, Elemental sulfur, Potassium sulfate). Only as a supplement to biologically-based fertility methods, use restricted to cases where nutrient deficiency is documented by testing or diagnosed by an independent expertProhibitedAll products not on the list● Sewage sludge● Synthetic fertilizers or fertilizers made soluble by chemical methods, e.g. urea, superphosphates, sodium (chilean) nitrate | Applicable principlesPr. 1. RecyclingPr. 2. Input reductionPr. 3. Soil healthFertilization practices are diverse and adapted to local conditions and needs, but prioritize the use of natural and organic sources of nutrients.● Plant-derived fertilizers● Animal-derived fertilizers● Microbiological-derived fertilizers● Compost and worm compost● Split fertilization (to reduce the amount used)● Mineral fertilizersDiscouragedDoes not comply with the principles:● Synthetic fertilizers● Any materials that may contain contaminants or toxins, including sewage sludge | Applicable principlesPr. 2. Catch and Store Energy—Organic mulch application.Pr. 5. Use and Value Renewable Resources and Services—Legumes and animal manure as nutrient source, Mycorrhizal fungi.Pr. 6. Produce no Waste—Animal manure, Human excreta, Waste products as animal feed. | Applicable principlesPr. 2. Keeping the soil covered—crop residues are left on the soil surface.No fertilizer limitationfertilizers aren't part of the three CA fundamental principles. |
| 2. Tillage management | ● Light tillage is allowedProhibited● Bare tillage year-round | ● No tillage limitationRecommendations● Prevent erosion and minimize loss of topsoil (MT, maintenance of soil plant cover, etc.) | Applicable principlesPr. 2. Input reduction (petrol)Pr. 3. Soil health● Reduced or no tillage● Direct seeding into cover crops/mulch | Applicable principlesNo applicable principle | Applicable principlesPr. 1. Minimum mechanical soil disturbance (reducing or eliminating tillage). |
| 3. Weed, pest and disease management | RequirementsUse only substances that are on an allowed products list: appendix C of the DABFS.● Biological pest control: Natural enemies, Trap, pheromones, repellents● Botanical pesticides: plant preparations, plant oils● Microbial pesticides (such as Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) and granuose virus)● Animal-based pesticides: milk products, propolis, etc● Others: homeopathic preparations, soft soapHighly regulated● Mineral-based pesticides: derived from minerals, such as copper salts (Max 3 kg Cu/ha per year), silicates, sulfur, potassium bicarbonate, Fe(III) OrthophosphateRecommendationsAvoid biocides that are not selective to the pest speciesProhibitedSubstances that do not appear on appendix C of the DABFS● Synthetic pesticides● Growth hormones | RequirementsUse only substances that are on an allowed products list: appendix 3 of the IFOAM.● Biological pest control: Natural enemies, Traps, barriers, repellents● Botanical pesticides: Plant preparation, plant oils● Microbial pesticides (such as Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) and Spinosad)● Animal-based pesticides: animal oils, beeswax, etc● Others: Biodynamic preparations, soft soaps, etc.Highly regulated● Mineral-based pesticides: derived from minerals, such as copper salts (Max 6 kg Cu/ha per year), silicates, sulfur, etc.ProhibitedSubstances that do not appear on Appendix 3–IFOAM norms.● Micronutrients in either chloride or nitrate forms● Synthetic pesticides● co-formulants that are carcinogens, mutagens, teratogens or neurotoxins | Applicable principlesPr. 1. RecyclingPr. 2. Input reductionPr. 3. Soil healthPr. 5. BiodiversityPr. 6. SynergyCrop protection seeks for an optimization of interrelated positive processes and mechanisms (based on natural enemies and biodiversity) within the farm, to limit the risks of infection or highprevalence of bio-aggressors, while minimizing synthetic and toxic external inputs.● Botanical and microbial pesticides● Biological pest control● Allelopathic plants in crop rotation● Other biopesticidesDiscouragedDoes not comply with the principles)● synthetic pesticides | Applicable principlesPr. 4. Apply Self-Regulation and Accept Feedback—Enhancement of regulating ecosystem services. | No specific pesticide limitationPesticides are not part of the three CA fundamental principles. However, integrated pest management (IPM) is often recommended. Herbicides are the most commonly used pesticides in CA, due to the weeds infestations problems. |
| 4. Crop irrigation | RecommendationsIrrigation needs are required to be met based on a strategy that emphasize water conservation.● Alternative pumping methods (solar, wind,…)● Irrigation scheduling● Irrigation water should be free of chemical contamination | RecommendationsOrganic management ensures that water resources are used sustainably. | ApplicableprinciplesPr. 1. RecyclingPr. 2. Input reductionAdapt the agrosystem to the local water constraints. Use technologies like drip irrigation to increase water use efficiency. | ApplicableprinciplesPr. 2. Catch and Store Energy—Rainwater harvesting measuresPr. 5. Use and Value Renewable Resources and Services | No specificcrop irrigation limitationsIrrigation is not part of the three CA fundamental principles. |
| 5. Crop choice, spatial distribution and temporal succession | Requirements● Use of seeds coming from Biodynamic sources if possible● Crop rotation● Intercropping● Use of crop residues and/or a cover crop for permanent ground cover● Botanical species diversity● Predator habitat● Timing of planting according to pest life cycleProhibited● Monoculture● Planting the same crop for more than 2 years in a row● Hybrid varieties● GMO and treated seeds● Nanotechnology | Recommendations● Crop rotation● Intercropping● Companion planting (control pests and diseases naturally)● Use organic seed and planting materials (unless unavailable)Prohibited● GMOs● Irradiation● Synthetic growth regulators | Applicable principlePr. 5. BiodiversityPr. 6. SynergyThe objective is to create beneficial biological interactions and synergies amongst the components of agroecosystems.● Diversity of crops● Crop rotation (including cover crops and leguminous plants)● Intercropping and relay intercropping● Agroforestry with timber, fruit or nut trees | Applicable principlePr. 4. Apply Self-Regulation and Accept Feedback—Enhancement of regulating ecosystem servicesPr. 8. Integrate Rather than Segregate—Polyculture (crops)Pr. 10. Use and Value Diversity—Plant species, Pollinator, Habitat, …Pr. 11. Use Edges and Value the Marginal—High field border density, Field margins, Edges with forests | Applicable principlePr. 2. Keeping the soil covered. Use of cover crop for permanent ground cover.Pr. 3. Species diversification and crop rotation. Lengthening and diversifying crop rotations, often by including legume crops. The crop sequences and associations must involve at least three different crops. |
| 6. Management of landscape elements | Requirements● Minimum of 10% of the total effective land set aside as a biodiversity reserve● Buffer zones must be created between certified fields and chemically treated acresForbidden● Clearance of virgin forest | Recommendations● Maintain or enhance biodiversity in crop and non-crop habitats on the farm holding.● Protection of natural enemies of pests through provision of favorable habitat, such as hedges, nesting sites and ecological buffer zones. | Applicable principlePr. 5. BiodiversityPr. 6. SynergyIntegration of semi-natural landscape elements at field, farm and landscape scale (planting and management of vegetation strips and hedges in fields and at field borders). | Applicable principlePr. 2. Catch and Store Energy—Woody elements in agriculturePr. 4. Apply Self-Regulation and Accept Feedback—Enhancement of regulating ecosystem servicesPr. 9. Use Small and Slow Solutions—Agroforestry systemsPr. 10. Use and Value DiversityPr. 11. Use Edges and Value the Marginal—High field border density, edges with forests | Landscape management not taken into account |
| 7. Livestock management | Requirements● Integrating livestock into agronomic systems (except for approved exemption)● Have a mixed livestock population to sustain a self-sufficient system● Access to free range forage and shelter all year (refer to appendix F of DABFS for max stocking rates)● Min of 50% of the feed ration must come from on-farm production, the rest must be certified biodynamic or organicRecommendation● Herbal, homeopathic and anthroposophical treatmentProhibited● Genetically engineered animals● Hormonal treatments● Supplementation with synthetic amino acids● Antibiotics treatment and in feed● Routine and preventive treatments with allopathic medication (except vaccination required by law)● Totally slatted floors● Mutilation | Requirements● Animal production systems raise animals organically from birth or hatching● Animals are allowed to graze in open pastures, and their living conditions are kept clean and comfortableProhibited● Prophylactic use of antibiotics and other allopathic chemical veterinary drugs● Growth hormones● Synthetic feed rations (amino acids, nitrogen compounds, stimulants, appetizers, preservatives, colouring agents, or any solvent-extracted substance)● Mutilation | Applicable principlePr. 1. RecyclingPr. 3. Soil healthPr. 4. Animal health and welfareIntegrating livestock back into agronomic systemsDiscouragedDoes not comply with the principles● Confined animals● Antibiotics and other drugs treatment and in feed● Mutilation● Etc. | Applicable principlePr. 8. Integrate Rather than Segregate—Integration of livestock, fish, and other animals | Livestock management not taken into account(system only for crops) |
From the Demeter association inc. biodynamic farm standard, 2017 (DABFS). Biodynamic farming is certified. Website: biodynamics.com
From IFOAM-Organics International—IFOAM norms for organic productions and processing, version 2014, Germany. Organic farming is certified. Website: Ifoam.bio
From the paper of Wezel et al 2014, Wezel et al 2020, and the HLPE report (2019). There is no agroecological certification. Website: agroeco.org
From Holmgren (2002) and Krebs and Bach 2018. Instead of a farm certification, the certification is ensured through a Permaculture Design Certification Courses. Website: permaculture.org
From the FAO website: http://www.fao.org/ag/ca/1a.html There is no CA certification.
Guidelines per main category of practice, for the five ecology-based agriculture systems evaluated in this review. Acronyms: CA—conservation agriculture; SS—sewage sludge; MT—minimum tillage; GMO—genetically modified organism; Pr.—principles.
| Categories of practices . | Biodynamic farming1 . | Organic agriculture2 . | Agroecology3 . | Permaculture4 . | Conservation agriculture5 . |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1. Fertilization | RequirementsUse only substances that are on an allowed products list: appendix B of the DABFS.● Plant-derived fertilizers● Animal-derived fertilizers: manure (max 56 manure unit/acre), fish, bone meal, processing by-products● Microbiological-derived fertilizers● Legumes/nutrient catch crops● Biodynamic preparations refer to appendix J of the DABFS● Biodynamic compost● Naturally occurring mineral fertilizers (Rock dust, clays, lime fertilizer)Highly regulated● Amount of fertility that can be imported and applied● Origin of the fertilizer: distance from the farm, off-farm manure sources should come from certified organic livestock production minimum● Raw manure/urine● Approved P and K salts, Mg sulphate, sulfur and trace mineralsProhibitedAll products not on the list● Synthetic fertilizers or fertilizers made soluble by chemical methods, e.g. urea, superphosphates, sodium (chilean) nitrate● Any materials that may contain contaminants or toxins: organic wastes from municipal and industrial sources (SS), or from synthetic, chemically farmed agriculture | RequirementsUse only substances that are on an allowed products list: appendix 2 of the IFOAM.● Plant-derived fertilizers● Animal-derived fertilizers: manure, blood, bone meal, fish product, etc.● Microbiological-derived fertilizers● Compost and worm compost● Nitrogen fixation from plants● Biodynamic preparationsHighly regulated● Naturally occurring mineral fertilizers (Rock phosphate, Elemental sulfur, Potassium sulfate). Only as a supplement to biologically-based fertility methods, use restricted to cases where nutrient deficiency is documented by testing or diagnosed by an independent expertProhibitedAll products not on the list● Sewage sludge● Synthetic fertilizers or fertilizers made soluble by chemical methods, e.g. urea, superphosphates, sodium (chilean) nitrate | Applicable principlesPr. 1. RecyclingPr. 2. Input reductionPr. 3. Soil healthFertilization practices are diverse and adapted to local conditions and needs, but prioritize the use of natural and organic sources of nutrients.● Plant-derived fertilizers● Animal-derived fertilizers● Microbiological-derived fertilizers● Compost and worm compost● Split fertilization (to reduce the amount used)● Mineral fertilizersDiscouragedDoes not comply with the principles:● Synthetic fertilizers● Any materials that may contain contaminants or toxins, including sewage sludge | Applicable principlesPr. 2. Catch and Store Energy—Organic mulch application.Pr. 5. Use and Value Renewable Resources and Services—Legumes and animal manure as nutrient source, Mycorrhizal fungi.Pr. 6. Produce no Waste—Animal manure, Human excreta, Waste products as animal feed. | Applicable principlesPr. 2. Keeping the soil covered—crop residues are left on the soil surface.No fertilizer limitationfertilizers aren't part of the three CA fundamental principles. |
| 2. Tillage management | ● Light tillage is allowedProhibited● Bare tillage year-round | ● No tillage limitationRecommendations● Prevent erosion and minimize loss of topsoil (MT, maintenance of soil plant cover, etc.) | Applicable principlesPr. 2. Input reduction (petrol)Pr. 3. Soil health● Reduced or no tillage● Direct seeding into cover crops/mulch | Applicable principlesNo applicable principle | Applicable principlesPr. 1. Minimum mechanical soil disturbance (reducing or eliminating tillage). |
| 3. Weed, pest and disease management | RequirementsUse only substances that are on an allowed products list: appendix C of the DABFS.● Biological pest control: Natural enemies, Trap, pheromones, repellents● Botanical pesticides: plant preparations, plant oils● Microbial pesticides (such as Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) and granuose virus)● Animal-based pesticides: milk products, propolis, etc● Others: homeopathic preparations, soft soapHighly regulated● Mineral-based pesticides: derived from minerals, such as copper salts (Max 3 kg Cu/ha per year), silicates, sulfur, potassium bicarbonate, Fe(III) OrthophosphateRecommendationsAvoid biocides that are not selective to the pest speciesProhibitedSubstances that do not appear on appendix C of the DABFS● Synthetic pesticides● Growth hormones | RequirementsUse only substances that are on an allowed products list: appendix 3 of the IFOAM.● Biological pest control: Natural enemies, Traps, barriers, repellents● Botanical pesticides: Plant preparation, plant oils● Microbial pesticides (such as Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) and Spinosad)● Animal-based pesticides: animal oils, beeswax, etc● Others: Biodynamic preparations, soft soaps, etc.Highly regulated● Mineral-based pesticides: derived from minerals, such as copper salts (Max 6 kg Cu/ha per year), silicates, sulfur, etc.ProhibitedSubstances that do not appear on Appendix 3–IFOAM norms.● Micronutrients in either chloride or nitrate forms● Synthetic pesticides● co-formulants that are carcinogens, mutagens, teratogens or neurotoxins | Applicable principlesPr. 1. RecyclingPr. 2. Input reductionPr. 3. Soil healthPr. 5. BiodiversityPr. 6. SynergyCrop protection seeks for an optimization of interrelated positive processes and mechanisms (based on natural enemies and biodiversity) within the farm, to limit the risks of infection or highprevalence of bio-aggressors, while minimizing synthetic and toxic external inputs.● Botanical and microbial pesticides● Biological pest control● Allelopathic plants in crop rotation● Other biopesticidesDiscouragedDoes not comply with the principles)● synthetic pesticides | Applicable principlesPr. 4. Apply Self-Regulation and Accept Feedback—Enhancement of regulating ecosystem services. | No specific pesticide limitationPesticides are not part of the three CA fundamental principles. However, integrated pest management (IPM) is often recommended. Herbicides are the most commonly used pesticides in CA, due to the weeds infestations problems. |
| 4. Crop irrigation | RecommendationsIrrigation needs are required to be met based on a strategy that emphasize water conservation.● Alternative pumping methods (solar, wind,…)● Irrigation scheduling● Irrigation water should be free of chemical contamination | RecommendationsOrganic management ensures that water resources are used sustainably. | ApplicableprinciplesPr. 1. RecyclingPr. 2. Input reductionAdapt the agrosystem to the local water constraints. Use technologies like drip irrigation to increase water use efficiency. | ApplicableprinciplesPr. 2. Catch and Store Energy—Rainwater harvesting measuresPr. 5. Use and Value Renewable Resources and Services | No specificcrop irrigation limitationsIrrigation is not part of the three CA fundamental principles. |
| 5. Crop choice, spatial distribution and temporal succession | Requirements● Use of seeds coming from Biodynamic sources if possible● Crop rotation● Intercropping● Use of crop residues and/or a cover crop for permanent ground cover● Botanical species diversity● Predator habitat● Timing of planting according to pest life cycleProhibited● Monoculture● Planting the same crop for more than 2 years in a row● Hybrid varieties● GMO and treated seeds● Nanotechnology | Recommendations● Crop rotation● Intercropping● Companion planting (control pests and diseases naturally)● Use organic seed and planting materials (unless unavailable)Prohibited● GMOs● Irradiation● Synthetic growth regulators | Applicable principlePr. 5. BiodiversityPr. 6. SynergyThe objective is to create beneficial biological interactions and synergies amongst the components of agroecosystems.● Diversity of crops● Crop rotation (including cover crops and leguminous plants)● Intercropping and relay intercropping● Agroforestry with timber, fruit or nut trees | Applicable principlePr. 4. Apply Self-Regulation and Accept Feedback—Enhancement of regulating ecosystem servicesPr. 8. Integrate Rather than Segregate—Polyculture (crops)Pr. 10. Use and Value Diversity—Plant species, Pollinator, Habitat, …Pr. 11. Use Edges and Value the Marginal—High field border density, Field margins, Edges with forests | Applicable principlePr. 2. Keeping the soil covered. Use of cover crop for permanent ground cover.Pr. 3. Species diversification and crop rotation. Lengthening and diversifying crop rotations, often by including legume crops. The crop sequences and associations must involve at least three different crops. |
| 6. Management of landscape elements | Requirements● Minimum of 10% of the total effective land set aside as a biodiversity reserve● Buffer zones must be created between certified fields and chemically treated acresForbidden● Clearance of virgin forest | Recommendations● Maintain or enhance biodiversity in crop and non-crop habitats on the farm holding.● Protection of natural enemies of pests through provision of favorable habitat, such as hedges, nesting sites and ecological buffer zones. | Applicable principlePr. 5. BiodiversityPr. 6. SynergyIntegration of semi-natural landscape elements at field, farm and landscape scale (planting and management of vegetation strips and hedges in fields and at field borders). | Applicable principlePr. 2. Catch and Store Energy—Woody elements in agriculturePr. 4. Apply Self-Regulation and Accept Feedback—Enhancement of regulating ecosystem servicesPr. 9. Use Small and Slow Solutions—Agroforestry systemsPr. 10. Use and Value DiversityPr. 11. Use Edges and Value the Marginal—High field border density, edges with forests | Landscape management not taken into account |
| 7. Livestock management | Requirements● Integrating livestock into agronomic systems (except for approved exemption)● Have a mixed livestock population to sustain a self-sufficient system● Access to free range forage and shelter all year (refer to appendix F of DABFS for max stocking rates)● Min of 50% of the feed ration must come from on-farm production, the rest must be certified biodynamic or organicRecommendation● Herbal, homeopathic and anthroposophical treatmentProhibited● Genetically engineered animals● Hormonal treatments● Supplementation with synthetic amino acids● Antibiotics treatment and in feed● Routine and preventive treatments with allopathic medication (except vaccination required by law)● Totally slatted floors● Mutilation | Requirements● Animal production systems raise animals organically from birth or hatching● Animals are allowed to graze in open pastures, and their living conditions are kept clean and comfortableProhibited● Prophylactic use of antibiotics and other allopathic chemical veterinary drugs● Growth hormones● Synthetic feed rations (amino acids, nitrogen compounds, stimulants, appetizers, preservatives, colouring agents, or any solvent-extracted substance)● Mutilation | Applicable principlePr. 1. RecyclingPr. 3. Soil healthPr. 4. Animal health and welfareIntegrating livestock back into agronomic systemsDiscouragedDoes not comply with the principles● Confined animals● Antibiotics and other drugs treatment and in feed● Mutilation● Etc. | Applicable principlePr. 8. Integrate Rather than Segregate—Integration of livestock, fish, and other animals | Livestock management not taken into account(system only for crops) |
| Categories of practices . | Biodynamic farming1 . | Organic agriculture2 . | Agroecology3 . | Permaculture4 . | Conservation agriculture5 . |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1. Fertilization | RequirementsUse only substances that are on an allowed products list: appendix B of the DABFS.● Plant-derived fertilizers● Animal-derived fertilizers: manure (max 56 manure unit/acre), fish, bone meal, processing by-products● Microbiological-derived fertilizers● Legumes/nutrient catch crops● Biodynamic preparations refer to appendix J of the DABFS● Biodynamic compost● Naturally occurring mineral fertilizers (Rock dust, clays, lime fertilizer)Highly regulated● Amount of fertility that can be imported and applied● Origin of the fertilizer: distance from the farm, off-farm manure sources should come from certified organic livestock production minimum● Raw manure/urine● Approved P and K salts, Mg sulphate, sulfur and trace mineralsProhibitedAll products not on the list● Synthetic fertilizers or fertilizers made soluble by chemical methods, e.g. urea, superphosphates, sodium (chilean) nitrate● Any materials that may contain contaminants or toxins: organic wastes from municipal and industrial sources (SS), or from synthetic, chemically farmed agriculture | RequirementsUse only substances that are on an allowed products list: appendix 2 of the IFOAM.● Plant-derived fertilizers● Animal-derived fertilizers: manure, blood, bone meal, fish product, etc.● Microbiological-derived fertilizers● Compost and worm compost● Nitrogen fixation from plants● Biodynamic preparationsHighly regulated● Naturally occurring mineral fertilizers (Rock phosphate, Elemental sulfur, Potassium sulfate). Only as a supplement to biologically-based fertility methods, use restricted to cases where nutrient deficiency is documented by testing or diagnosed by an independent expertProhibitedAll products not on the list● Sewage sludge● Synthetic fertilizers or fertilizers made soluble by chemical methods, e.g. urea, superphosphates, sodium (chilean) nitrate | Applicable principlesPr. 1. RecyclingPr. 2. Input reductionPr. 3. Soil healthFertilization practices are diverse and adapted to local conditions and needs, but prioritize the use of natural and organic sources of nutrients.● Plant-derived fertilizers● Animal-derived fertilizers● Microbiological-derived fertilizers● Compost and worm compost● Split fertilization (to reduce the amount used)● Mineral fertilizersDiscouragedDoes not comply with the principles:● Synthetic fertilizers● Any materials that may contain contaminants or toxins, including sewage sludge | Applicable principlesPr. 2. Catch and Store Energy—Organic mulch application.Pr. 5. Use and Value Renewable Resources and Services—Legumes and animal manure as nutrient source, Mycorrhizal fungi.Pr. 6. Produce no Waste—Animal manure, Human excreta, Waste products as animal feed. | Applicable principlesPr. 2. Keeping the soil covered—crop residues are left on the soil surface.No fertilizer limitationfertilizers aren't part of the three CA fundamental principles. |
| 2. Tillage management | ● Light tillage is allowedProhibited● Bare tillage year-round | ● No tillage limitationRecommendations● Prevent erosion and minimize loss of topsoil (MT, maintenance of soil plant cover, etc.) | Applicable principlesPr. 2. Input reduction (petrol)Pr. 3. Soil health● Reduced or no tillage● Direct seeding into cover crops/mulch | Applicable principlesNo applicable principle | Applicable principlesPr. 1. Minimum mechanical soil disturbance (reducing or eliminating tillage). |
| 3. Weed, pest and disease management | RequirementsUse only substances that are on an allowed products list: appendix C of the DABFS.● Biological pest control: Natural enemies, Trap, pheromones, repellents● Botanical pesticides: plant preparations, plant oils● Microbial pesticides (such as Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) and granuose virus)● Animal-based pesticides: milk products, propolis, etc● Others: homeopathic preparations, soft soapHighly regulated● Mineral-based pesticides: derived from minerals, such as copper salts (Max 3 kg Cu/ha per year), silicates, sulfur, potassium bicarbonate, Fe(III) OrthophosphateRecommendationsAvoid biocides that are not selective to the pest speciesProhibitedSubstances that do not appear on appendix C of the DABFS● Synthetic pesticides● Growth hormones | RequirementsUse only substances that are on an allowed products list: appendix 3 of the IFOAM.● Biological pest control: Natural enemies, Traps, barriers, repellents● Botanical pesticides: Plant preparation, plant oils● Microbial pesticides (such as Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) and Spinosad)● Animal-based pesticides: animal oils, beeswax, etc● Others: Biodynamic preparations, soft soaps, etc.Highly regulated● Mineral-based pesticides: derived from minerals, such as copper salts (Max 6 kg Cu/ha per year), silicates, sulfur, etc.ProhibitedSubstances that do not appear on Appendix 3–IFOAM norms.● Micronutrients in either chloride or nitrate forms● Synthetic pesticides● co-formulants that are carcinogens, mutagens, teratogens or neurotoxins | Applicable principlesPr. 1. RecyclingPr. 2. Input reductionPr. 3. Soil healthPr. 5. BiodiversityPr. 6. SynergyCrop protection seeks for an optimization of interrelated positive processes and mechanisms (based on natural enemies and biodiversity) within the farm, to limit the risks of infection or highprevalence of bio-aggressors, while minimizing synthetic and toxic external inputs.● Botanical and microbial pesticides● Biological pest control● Allelopathic plants in crop rotation● Other biopesticidesDiscouragedDoes not comply with the principles)● synthetic pesticides | Applicable principlesPr. 4. Apply Self-Regulation and Accept Feedback—Enhancement of regulating ecosystem services. | No specific pesticide limitationPesticides are not part of the three CA fundamental principles. However, integrated pest management (IPM) is often recommended. Herbicides are the most commonly used pesticides in CA, due to the weeds infestations problems. |
| 4. Crop irrigation | RecommendationsIrrigation needs are required to be met based on a strategy that emphasize water conservation.● Alternative pumping methods (solar, wind,…)● Irrigation scheduling● Irrigation water should be free of chemical contamination | RecommendationsOrganic management ensures that water resources are used sustainably. | ApplicableprinciplesPr. 1. RecyclingPr. 2. Input reductionAdapt the agrosystem to the local water constraints. Use technologies like drip irrigation to increase water use efficiency. | ApplicableprinciplesPr. 2. Catch and Store Energy—Rainwater harvesting measuresPr. 5. Use and Value Renewable Resources and Services | No specificcrop irrigation limitationsIrrigation is not part of the three CA fundamental principles. |
| 5. Crop choice, spatial distribution and temporal succession | Requirements● Use of seeds coming from Biodynamic sources if possible● Crop rotation● Intercropping● Use of crop residues and/or a cover crop for permanent ground cover● Botanical species diversity● Predator habitat● Timing of planting according to pest life cycleProhibited● Monoculture● Planting the same crop for more than 2 years in a row● Hybrid varieties● GMO and treated seeds● Nanotechnology | Recommendations● Crop rotation● Intercropping● Companion planting (control pests and diseases naturally)● Use organic seed and planting materials (unless unavailable)Prohibited● GMOs● Irradiation● Synthetic growth regulators | Applicable principlePr. 5. BiodiversityPr. 6. SynergyThe objective is to create beneficial biological interactions and synergies amongst the components of agroecosystems.● Diversity of crops● Crop rotation (including cover crops and leguminous plants)● Intercropping and relay intercropping● Agroforestry with timber, fruit or nut trees | Applicable principlePr. 4. Apply Self-Regulation and Accept Feedback—Enhancement of regulating ecosystem servicesPr. 8. Integrate Rather than Segregate—Polyculture (crops)Pr. 10. Use and Value Diversity—Plant species, Pollinator, Habitat, …Pr. 11. Use Edges and Value the Marginal—High field border density, Field margins, Edges with forests | Applicable principlePr. 2. Keeping the soil covered. Use of cover crop for permanent ground cover.Pr. 3. Species diversification and crop rotation. Lengthening and diversifying crop rotations, often by including legume crops. The crop sequences and associations must involve at least three different crops. |
| 6. Management of landscape elements | Requirements● Minimum of 10% of the total effective land set aside as a biodiversity reserve● Buffer zones must be created between certified fields and chemically treated acresForbidden● Clearance of virgin forest | Recommendations● Maintain or enhance biodiversity in crop and non-crop habitats on the farm holding.● Protection of natural enemies of pests through provision of favorable habitat, such as hedges, nesting sites and ecological buffer zones. | Applicable principlePr. 5. BiodiversityPr. 6. SynergyIntegration of semi-natural landscape elements at field, farm and landscape scale (planting and management of vegetation strips and hedges in fields and at field borders). | Applicable principlePr. 2. Catch and Store Energy—Woody elements in agriculturePr. 4. Apply Self-Regulation and Accept Feedback—Enhancement of regulating ecosystem servicesPr. 9. Use Small and Slow Solutions—Agroforestry systemsPr. 10. Use and Value DiversityPr. 11. Use Edges and Value the Marginal—High field border density, edges with forests | Landscape management not taken into account |
| 7. Livestock management | Requirements● Integrating livestock into agronomic systems (except for approved exemption)● Have a mixed livestock population to sustain a self-sufficient system● Access to free range forage and shelter all year (refer to appendix F of DABFS for max stocking rates)● Min of 50% of the feed ration must come from on-farm production, the rest must be certified biodynamic or organicRecommendation● Herbal, homeopathic and anthroposophical treatmentProhibited● Genetically engineered animals● Hormonal treatments● Supplementation with synthetic amino acids● Antibiotics treatment and in feed● Routine and preventive treatments with allopathic medication (except vaccination required by law)● Totally slatted floors● Mutilation | Requirements● Animal production systems raise animals organically from birth or hatching● Animals are allowed to graze in open pastures, and their living conditions are kept clean and comfortableProhibited● Prophylactic use of antibiotics and other allopathic chemical veterinary drugs● Growth hormones● Synthetic feed rations (amino acids, nitrogen compounds, stimulants, appetizers, preservatives, colouring agents, or any solvent-extracted substance)● Mutilation | Applicable principlePr. 1. RecyclingPr. 3. Soil healthPr. 4. Animal health and welfareIntegrating livestock back into agronomic systemsDiscouragedDoes not comply with the principles● Confined animals● Antibiotics and other drugs treatment and in feed● Mutilation● Etc. | Applicable principlePr. 8. Integrate Rather than Segregate—Integration of livestock, fish, and other animals | Livestock management not taken into account(system only for crops) |
From the Demeter association inc. biodynamic farm standard, 2017 (DABFS). Biodynamic farming is certified. Website: biodynamics.com
From IFOAM-Organics International—IFOAM norms for organic productions and processing, version 2014, Germany. Organic farming is certified. Website: Ifoam.bio
From the paper of Wezel et al 2014, Wezel et al 2020, and the HLPE report (2019). There is no agroecological certification. Website: agroeco.org
From Holmgren (2002) and Krebs and Bach 2018. Instead of a farm certification, the certification is ensured through a Permaculture Design Certification Courses. Website: permaculture.org
From the FAO website: http://www.fao.org/ag/ca/1a.html There is no CA certification.
This PDF is available to Subscribers Only
View Article Abstract & Purchase OptionsFor full access to this pdf, sign in to an existing account, or purchase an annual subscription.
