Immunogenic compounds derived from PGNs and lipids of gut microbes and their mechanisms of actions.
| Cell wall-derived compounds . | Origin . | Mechanisms . | Models investigated . |
|---|---|---|---|
| iE-DAP | Synthesis | NOD1↑ | Macrophages (Chamaillard et al., 2003) |
| FK-156 | Synthesis | IL-1↑ | Macrophages (Ahmed and Turk, 1989) |
| FK-565 | Synthesis | NOD1↑ | CRC mice (Maisonneuve et al., 2021) |
| G-MDP-meso-DAP | N. meningitidis | NOD1↑ | NF-κB reporter HEK293T cells (Girardin et al., 2003) |
| Mifamurtide | Synthesis | NOD2↑ | Clinical study (Dvorožňáková et al., 2008) |
| G-MDP | E. faecium | NOD2↑ | Pathogen-infected mice (Kim et al., 2019) |
| G-MDP-Lys | L. salivarius | NOD2↑ | IBD mice (Fernandez et al., 2011) |
| MDP | Synthesis | NOD2↑ | Older mice (Gabanyi et al., 2022) |
| MDP | Synthesis | NOD2↑/IRF4↓ | Obese mice (Cavallari et al., 2017) |
| Intact PGN | Lactobacillus spp. | TLR2↑ | Peritoneal macrophages (Shida et al., 2009) |
| Muropeptides | E. coli | ATP synthase↑ | Caenorhabditis elegans (Tian and Han, 2022) |
| NAG | S. aureus | Hexokinase↑ | BMDMs (Wolf et al., 2016) |
| WTA | L. plantarum | IL-12↑ | BMDMs (Kojima et al., 2022) |
| LTA | L. rhamnosus GG | TLR2↑ | Radiation-injury (Riehl et al., 2019) |
| LTA | L. paracasei D3-5 | TLR2↑ | Obese mice (Wang et al., 2020b) |
| LTA | A. kosoi | lgA↑ | Murine Peyer’s patch cells (Matsuzaki et al., 2022) |
| LTA | E. faecalis | PI3K/Akt/mTOR↓ | RAW264.7 cell (Lin et al., 2018) |
| LTA | E. faecalis | p38/ERK1/2↑ | BMDMs (Wang et al., 2019) |
| LPS | E. coli | TLR4↑ | IBD mice (Heimesaat et al., 2007) |
| LPS | P. goldsteinii | TLR4↓ | COPD mice (Lai et al., 2022) |
| LPS | B. vulgatus | MD-2/TLR4↑ | IBD mice (Steimle et al., 2019; Di Lorenzo et al., 2020) |
| PSA | B. fragilis | TLR2/1 and Dectin-1↑ | Macrophages (Erturk-Hasdemir et al., 2019) |
| a15:0-i15:0 PE | A. muciniphila | TLR2/1↑ | DCs (Bae et al., 2022) |
| PG | S. aureus | CD4 + T cell↑ | Atopic dermatitis (Monnot et al., 2023) |
| PE and PC | D. piger | γδ T cells↑ | Hypoxia-injury (Li et al., 2022) |
| Cell wall-derived compounds . | Origin . | Mechanisms . | Models investigated . |
|---|---|---|---|
| iE-DAP | Synthesis | NOD1↑ | Macrophages (Chamaillard et al., 2003) |
| FK-156 | Synthesis | IL-1↑ | Macrophages (Ahmed and Turk, 1989) |
| FK-565 | Synthesis | NOD1↑ | CRC mice (Maisonneuve et al., 2021) |
| G-MDP-meso-DAP | N. meningitidis | NOD1↑ | NF-κB reporter HEK293T cells (Girardin et al., 2003) |
| Mifamurtide | Synthesis | NOD2↑ | Clinical study (Dvorožňáková et al., 2008) |
| G-MDP | E. faecium | NOD2↑ | Pathogen-infected mice (Kim et al., 2019) |
| G-MDP-Lys | L. salivarius | NOD2↑ | IBD mice (Fernandez et al., 2011) |
| MDP | Synthesis | NOD2↑ | Older mice (Gabanyi et al., 2022) |
| MDP | Synthesis | NOD2↑/IRF4↓ | Obese mice (Cavallari et al., 2017) |
| Intact PGN | Lactobacillus spp. | TLR2↑ | Peritoneal macrophages (Shida et al., 2009) |
| Muropeptides | E. coli | ATP synthase↑ | Caenorhabditis elegans (Tian and Han, 2022) |
| NAG | S. aureus | Hexokinase↑ | BMDMs (Wolf et al., 2016) |
| WTA | L. plantarum | IL-12↑ | BMDMs (Kojima et al., 2022) |
| LTA | L. rhamnosus GG | TLR2↑ | Radiation-injury (Riehl et al., 2019) |
| LTA | L. paracasei D3-5 | TLR2↑ | Obese mice (Wang et al., 2020b) |
| LTA | A. kosoi | lgA↑ | Murine Peyer’s patch cells (Matsuzaki et al., 2022) |
| LTA | E. faecalis | PI3K/Akt/mTOR↓ | RAW264.7 cell (Lin et al., 2018) |
| LTA | E. faecalis | p38/ERK1/2↑ | BMDMs (Wang et al., 2019) |
| LPS | E. coli | TLR4↑ | IBD mice (Heimesaat et al., 2007) |
| LPS | P. goldsteinii | TLR4↓ | COPD mice (Lai et al., 2022) |
| LPS | B. vulgatus | MD-2/TLR4↑ | IBD mice (Steimle et al., 2019; Di Lorenzo et al., 2020) |
| PSA | B. fragilis | TLR2/1 and Dectin-1↑ | Macrophages (Erturk-Hasdemir et al., 2019) |
| a15:0-i15:0 PE | A. muciniphila | TLR2/1↑ | DCs (Bae et al., 2022) |
| PG | S. aureus | CD4 + T cell↑ | Atopic dermatitis (Monnot et al., 2023) |
| PE and PC | D. piger | γδ T cells↑ | Hypoxia-injury (Li et al., 2022) |
Immunogenic compounds derived from PGNs and lipids of gut microbes and their mechanisms of actions.
| Cell wall-derived compounds . | Origin . | Mechanisms . | Models investigated . |
|---|---|---|---|
| iE-DAP | Synthesis | NOD1↑ | Macrophages (Chamaillard et al., 2003) |
| FK-156 | Synthesis | IL-1↑ | Macrophages (Ahmed and Turk, 1989) |
| FK-565 | Synthesis | NOD1↑ | CRC mice (Maisonneuve et al., 2021) |
| G-MDP-meso-DAP | N. meningitidis | NOD1↑ | NF-κB reporter HEK293T cells (Girardin et al., 2003) |
| Mifamurtide | Synthesis | NOD2↑ | Clinical study (Dvorožňáková et al., 2008) |
| G-MDP | E. faecium | NOD2↑ | Pathogen-infected mice (Kim et al., 2019) |
| G-MDP-Lys | L. salivarius | NOD2↑ | IBD mice (Fernandez et al., 2011) |
| MDP | Synthesis | NOD2↑ | Older mice (Gabanyi et al., 2022) |
| MDP | Synthesis | NOD2↑/IRF4↓ | Obese mice (Cavallari et al., 2017) |
| Intact PGN | Lactobacillus spp. | TLR2↑ | Peritoneal macrophages (Shida et al., 2009) |
| Muropeptides | E. coli | ATP synthase↑ | Caenorhabditis elegans (Tian and Han, 2022) |
| NAG | S. aureus | Hexokinase↑ | BMDMs (Wolf et al., 2016) |
| WTA | L. plantarum | IL-12↑ | BMDMs (Kojima et al., 2022) |
| LTA | L. rhamnosus GG | TLR2↑ | Radiation-injury (Riehl et al., 2019) |
| LTA | L. paracasei D3-5 | TLR2↑ | Obese mice (Wang et al., 2020b) |
| LTA | A. kosoi | lgA↑ | Murine Peyer’s patch cells (Matsuzaki et al., 2022) |
| LTA | E. faecalis | PI3K/Akt/mTOR↓ | RAW264.7 cell (Lin et al., 2018) |
| LTA | E. faecalis | p38/ERK1/2↑ | BMDMs (Wang et al., 2019) |
| LPS | E. coli | TLR4↑ | IBD mice (Heimesaat et al., 2007) |
| LPS | P. goldsteinii | TLR4↓ | COPD mice (Lai et al., 2022) |
| LPS | B. vulgatus | MD-2/TLR4↑ | IBD mice (Steimle et al., 2019; Di Lorenzo et al., 2020) |
| PSA | B. fragilis | TLR2/1 and Dectin-1↑ | Macrophages (Erturk-Hasdemir et al., 2019) |
| a15:0-i15:0 PE | A. muciniphila | TLR2/1↑ | DCs (Bae et al., 2022) |
| PG | S. aureus | CD4 + T cell↑ | Atopic dermatitis (Monnot et al., 2023) |
| PE and PC | D. piger | γδ T cells↑ | Hypoxia-injury (Li et al., 2022) |
| Cell wall-derived compounds . | Origin . | Mechanisms . | Models investigated . |
|---|---|---|---|
| iE-DAP | Synthesis | NOD1↑ | Macrophages (Chamaillard et al., 2003) |
| FK-156 | Synthesis | IL-1↑ | Macrophages (Ahmed and Turk, 1989) |
| FK-565 | Synthesis | NOD1↑ | CRC mice (Maisonneuve et al., 2021) |
| G-MDP-meso-DAP | N. meningitidis | NOD1↑ | NF-κB reporter HEK293T cells (Girardin et al., 2003) |
| Mifamurtide | Synthesis | NOD2↑ | Clinical study (Dvorožňáková et al., 2008) |
| G-MDP | E. faecium | NOD2↑ | Pathogen-infected mice (Kim et al., 2019) |
| G-MDP-Lys | L. salivarius | NOD2↑ | IBD mice (Fernandez et al., 2011) |
| MDP | Synthesis | NOD2↑ | Older mice (Gabanyi et al., 2022) |
| MDP | Synthesis | NOD2↑/IRF4↓ | Obese mice (Cavallari et al., 2017) |
| Intact PGN | Lactobacillus spp. | TLR2↑ | Peritoneal macrophages (Shida et al., 2009) |
| Muropeptides | E. coli | ATP synthase↑ | Caenorhabditis elegans (Tian and Han, 2022) |
| NAG | S. aureus | Hexokinase↑ | BMDMs (Wolf et al., 2016) |
| WTA | L. plantarum | IL-12↑ | BMDMs (Kojima et al., 2022) |
| LTA | L. rhamnosus GG | TLR2↑ | Radiation-injury (Riehl et al., 2019) |
| LTA | L. paracasei D3-5 | TLR2↑ | Obese mice (Wang et al., 2020b) |
| LTA | A. kosoi | lgA↑ | Murine Peyer’s patch cells (Matsuzaki et al., 2022) |
| LTA | E. faecalis | PI3K/Akt/mTOR↓ | RAW264.7 cell (Lin et al., 2018) |
| LTA | E. faecalis | p38/ERK1/2↑ | BMDMs (Wang et al., 2019) |
| LPS | E. coli | TLR4↑ | IBD mice (Heimesaat et al., 2007) |
| LPS | P. goldsteinii | TLR4↓ | COPD mice (Lai et al., 2022) |
| LPS | B. vulgatus | MD-2/TLR4↑ | IBD mice (Steimle et al., 2019; Di Lorenzo et al., 2020) |
| PSA | B. fragilis | TLR2/1 and Dectin-1↑ | Macrophages (Erturk-Hasdemir et al., 2019) |
| a15:0-i15:0 PE | A. muciniphila | TLR2/1↑ | DCs (Bae et al., 2022) |
| PG | S. aureus | CD4 + T cell↑ | Atopic dermatitis (Monnot et al., 2023) |
| PE and PC | D. piger | γδ T cells↑ | Hypoxia-injury (Li et al., 2022) |
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