Table 2. Open in new tab...

	Depressed or sad			Often lonely			Trouble sleeping
Status
Not recently widowed	(Ref)	(Ref)	(Ref)	(Ref)	(Ref)	(Ref)	(Ref)	(Ref)	(Ref)
Recently widowed	0.339***	0.421***	0.495***	0.233***	0.235***	0.190	0.210***	0.215***	0.318*
	(0.019)	(0.023)	(0.063)	(0.020)	(0.031)	(0.141)	(0.022)	(0.034)	(0.134)
Time period
Pre-COVID-19	(Ref)	(Ref)	(Ref)	(Ref)	(Ref)	(Ref)	(Ref)	(Ref)	(Ref)
COVID-19	−0.144***	−0.149***	−0.130***	0.005	0.000	−0.005	−0.084***	−0.088***	−0.075***
	(0.008)	(0.008)	(0.010)	(0.003)	(0.003)	(0.005)	(0.007)	(0.007)	(0.009)
Difference-in-difference
Recently widowed × COVID-19	0.281***	0.200**	0.126	0.410*	0.408*	0.453*	0.093	0.087	−0.015
	(0.064)	(0.066)	(0.088)	(0.163)	(0.166)	(0.215)	(0.170)	(0.173)	(0.216)
Constant	0.426***	0.431***	0.411***	0.068***	0.072***	0.077***	0.357***	0.360***	0.347***
	(0.008)	(0.008)	(0.010)	(0.003)	(0.003)	(0.005)	(0.008)	(0.008)	(0.009)
Obs.	98,424	98,412	78,420	98,303	98,291	78,319	98,579	98,566	78,554
R²	.033	.031	.018	.012	.006	.002	.013	.011	.006
Time since spouse’s death	3 years or less	1 year or less	3 months or less	3 years or less	1 year or less	3 months or less	3 years or less	1 year or less	3 months or less

Depressed or sad

Often lonely

Trouble sleeping

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

(8)

(9)

Status

Not recently widowed

(Ref)

Recently widowed

0.339***

0.421***

0.495***

0.233***

0.235***

0.190

0.210***

0.215***

0.318*

(0.019)

(0.023)

(0.063)

(0.020)

(0.031)

(0.141)

(0.022)

(0.034)

(0.134)

Time period

Pre-COVID-19

(Ref)

COVID-19

−0.144***

−0.149***

−0.130***

0.005

0.000

−0.005

−0.084***

−0.088***

−0.075***

(0.008)

(0.010)

(0.003)

(0.005)

(0.007)

(0.009)

Difference-in-difference

Recently widowed × COVID-19

0.281***

0.200**

0.126

0.410*

0.408*

0.453*

0.093

0.087

−0.015

(0.064)

(0.066)

(0.088)

(0.163)

(0.166)

(0.215)

(0.170)

(0.173)

(0.216)

Constant

0.426***

0.431***

0.411***

0.068***

0.072***

0.077***

0.357***

0.360***

0.347***

(0.008)

(0.010)

(0.003)

(0.005)

(0.008)

(0.009)

Obs.

98,424

98,412

78,420

98,303

98,291

78,319

98,579

98,566

78,554

R²

.033

.031

.018

.012

.006

.002

.013

.011

.006

Time since spouse’s death

3 years or less

1 year or less

3 months or less

3 years or less

1 year or less

3 months or less

3 years or less

1 year or less

3 months or less

	Depressed or sad			Often lonely			Trouble sleeping
Status
Not recently widowed	(Ref)	(Ref)	(Ref)	(Ref)	(Ref)	(Ref)	(Ref)	(Ref)	(Ref)
Recently widowed	0.339***	0.421***	0.495***	0.233***	0.235***	0.190	0.210***	0.215***	0.318*
	(0.019)	(0.023)	(0.063)	(0.020)	(0.031)	(0.141)	(0.022)	(0.034)	(0.134)
Time period
Pre-COVID-19	(Ref)	(Ref)	(Ref)	(Ref)	(Ref)	(Ref)	(Ref)	(Ref)	(Ref)
COVID-19	−0.144***	−0.149***	−0.130***	0.005	0.000	−0.005	−0.084***	−0.088***	−0.075***
	(0.008)	(0.008)	(0.010)	(0.003)	(0.003)	(0.005)	(0.007)	(0.007)	(0.009)
Difference-in-difference
Recently widowed × COVID-19	0.281***	0.200**	0.126	0.410*	0.408*	0.453*	0.093	0.087	−0.015
	(0.064)	(0.066)	(0.088)	(0.163)	(0.166)	(0.215)	(0.170)	(0.173)	(0.216)
Constant	0.426***	0.431***	0.411***	0.068***	0.072***	0.077***	0.357***	0.360***	0.347***
	(0.008)	(0.008)	(0.010)	(0.003)	(0.003)	(0.005)	(0.008)	(0.008)	(0.009)
Obs.	98,424	98,412	78,420	98,303	98,291	78,319	98,579	98,566	78,554
R²	.033	.031	.018	.012	.006	.002	.013	.011	.006
Time since spouse’s death	3 years or less	1 year or less	3 months or less	3 years or less	1 year or less	3 months or less	3 years or less	1 year or less	3 months or less

Table 2.

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Difference-in-Difference Model Results of Recent Spousal Death, COVID-19, and Mental Health

	Depressed or sad			Often lonely			Trouble sleeping
	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)	(7)	(8)	(9)
Status
Not recently widowed	(Ref)	(Ref)	(Ref)	(Ref)	(Ref)	(Ref)	(Ref)	(Ref)	(Ref)
Recently widowed	0.339***	0.421***	0.495***	0.233***	0.235***	0.190	0.210***	0.215***	0.318*
	(0.019)	(0.023)	(0.063)	(0.020)	(0.031)	(0.141)	(0.022)	(0.034)	(0.134)
Time period
Pre-COVID-19	(Ref)	(Ref)	(Ref)	(Ref)	(Ref)	(Ref)	(Ref)	(Ref)	(Ref)
COVID-19	−0.144***	−0.149***	−0.130***	0.005	0.000	−0.005	−0.084***	−0.088***	−0.075***
	(0.008)	(0.008)	(0.010)	(0.003)	(0.003)	(0.005)	(0.007)	(0.007)	(0.009)
Difference-in-difference
Recently widowed × COVID-19	0.281***	0.200**	0.126	0.410*	0.408*	0.453*	0.093	0.087	−0.015
	(0.064)	(0.066)	(0.088)	(0.163)	(0.166)	(0.215)	(0.170)	(0.173)	(0.216)
Constant	0.426***	0.431***	0.411***	0.068***	0.072***	0.077***	0.357***	0.360***	0.347***
	(0.008)	(0.008)	(0.010)	(0.003)	(0.003)	(0.005)	(0.008)	(0.008)	(0.009)
Obs.	98,424	98,412	78,420	98,303	98,291	78,319	98,579	98,566	78,554
R²	.033	.031	.018	.012	.006	.002	.013	.011	.006
Time since spouse’s death	3 years or less	1 year or less	3 months or less	3 years or less	1 year or less	3 months or less	3 years or less	1 year or less	3 months or less

	Depressed or sad			Often lonely			Trouble sleeping
	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)	(7)	(8)	(9)
Status
Not recently widowed	(Ref)	(Ref)	(Ref)	(Ref)	(Ref)	(Ref)	(Ref)	(Ref)	(Ref)
Recently widowed	0.339***	0.421***	0.495***	0.233***	0.235***	0.190	0.210***	0.215***	0.318*
	(0.019)	(0.023)	(0.063)	(0.020)	(0.031)	(0.141)	(0.022)	(0.034)	(0.134)
Time period
Pre-COVID-19	(Ref)	(Ref)	(Ref)	(Ref)	(Ref)	(Ref)	(Ref)	(Ref)	(Ref)
COVID-19	−0.144***	−0.149***	−0.130***	0.005	0.000	−0.005	−0.084***	−0.088***	−0.075***
	(0.008)	(0.008)	(0.010)	(0.003)	(0.003)	(0.005)	(0.007)	(0.007)	(0.009)
Difference-in-difference
Recently widowed × COVID-19	0.281***	0.200**	0.126	0.410*	0.408*	0.453*	0.093	0.087	−0.015
	(0.064)	(0.066)	(0.088)	(0.163)	(0.166)	(0.215)	(0.170)	(0.173)	(0.216)
Constant	0.426***	0.431***	0.411***	0.068***	0.072***	0.077***	0.357***	0.360***	0.347***
	(0.008)	(0.008)	(0.010)	(0.003)	(0.003)	(0.005)	(0.008)	(0.008)	(0.009)
Obs.	98,424	98,412	78,420	98,303	98,291	78,319	98,579	98,566	78,554
R²	.033	.031	.018	.012	.006	.002	.013	.011	.006
Time since spouse’s death	3 years or less	1 year or less	3 months or less	3 years or less	1 year or less	3 months or less	3 years or less	1 year or less	3 months or less

Notes: (Ref) indicates reference group. Survey design corrected SEs are in parentheses. Time since death includes cases where spouse was measured as dying within indicated amount of time (Wave 8) or reported as dying of COVID-19 (COVID Supplement). Estimates are from weighted linear probability models. Models controlling for age group, gender, household size, self-rated health, employment status, and country are in Supplementary Table 1. Stratified models by gender and age group are in Supplementary Table 2. Models restricted to participants who appear in both Wave 8 and the COVID Supplement are in Supplementary Table 3. Models limited to respondents who were married in Wave 7 and did not divorce in Wave 8 are in Supplementary Table 4. A placebo test using spousal hospitalization instead of spousal death is in Supplementary Table 5. SE = standard error.

***p < .001, **p < .01, *p < .05.

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