Overview of studies on nocturnal and diurnal gatherings in vultures. In the majority of species, gatherings are characterized by strong seasonal social dynamics (i.e. increases in group size outside the reproductive period). Age-specific roosts (where adults and immatures roost at different locations) are reported for Andean Condors only. Note that nocturnal roosts are nearly always located close to predictable food resources and/or linked to transhumance, while diurnal gatherings are formed at food resources and near water ponds. Also, note that dominance interactions are not restricted to gatherings at food resources, but also at diurnal resting sites and nocturnal roosts. Evidence for social information transfer on food locations is reported for 2 species (Gyps fulvus and Coragyps atratus).
| Species . | Gathering type . | Seasonal dynamics . | Environmental factors . | Social interactions . |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Neophron percnopterus | Nocturnal | Breeding,1 migration 1 | refuse dump,2,3 livestock (farms),2 feeding station a | age/dominance-specific roosting place a |
| Diurnal | Breeding 4 | feeding station,4 food bonanzas,5 waterponds 5 | dominance displays, copulations | |
| allopreening (mate-seeking, pair-bonding) 4,5 | ||||
| Gyps fulvus | Nocturnal | Breeding 6,7 | feeding station,8 livestock (transhumance) 6,7,9 | foraging information transfer 8 |
| Diurnal | feeding station 8,10 | Observing 8,10 b | ||
| Torgos tracheliotos | Diurnal | waterponds,11 carcasses 12 | dominance displays,11,12 pair-bonding 11 | |
| Necrosyrtes monachus | Nocturnal | Breeding 13 | Slaughterhouses 13,14 | |
| Gyps coprotheres | Diurnal | waterponds 11 | dominance displays (low) 10 | |
| Vultur gryphus | Nocturnal | age-specific 15,16 | weather (thermals, cold stress),17,18,19 livestock (farms, transhumance)16 | age/dominance-specific roosting place 18 |
| Sarcoramphus papa | Diurnal | waterponds 20 | ||
| Cathartes aura | Nocturnal c | Breeding 21 | predation 22,23 | age/dominance-specific roosting place 23 |
| Coragyps atratus | Nocturnal | Breeding 24 | refuse dump 25 | family-association,24,26 dominance displays 27 |
| information transfer 28,29,30 |
| Species . | Gathering type . | Seasonal dynamics . | Environmental factors . | Social interactions . |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Neophron percnopterus | Nocturnal | Breeding,1 migration 1 | refuse dump,2,3 livestock (farms),2 feeding station a | age/dominance-specific roosting place a |
| Diurnal | Breeding 4 | feeding station,4 food bonanzas,5 waterponds 5 | dominance displays, copulations | |
| allopreening (mate-seeking, pair-bonding) 4,5 | ||||
| Gyps fulvus | Nocturnal | Breeding 6,7 | feeding station,8 livestock (transhumance) 6,7,9 | foraging information transfer 8 |
| Diurnal | feeding station 8,10 | Observing 8,10 b | ||
| Torgos tracheliotos | Diurnal | waterponds,11 carcasses 12 | dominance displays,11,12 pair-bonding 11 | |
| Necrosyrtes monachus | Nocturnal | Breeding 13 | Slaughterhouses 13,14 | |
| Gyps coprotheres | Diurnal | waterponds 11 | dominance displays (low) 10 | |
| Vultur gryphus | Nocturnal | age-specific 15,16 | weather (thermals, cold stress),17,18,19 livestock (farms, transhumance)16 | age/dominance-specific roosting place 18 |
| Sarcoramphus papa | Diurnal | waterponds 20 | ||
| Cathartes aura | Nocturnal c | Breeding 21 | predation 22,23 | age/dominance-specific roosting place 23 |
| Coragyps atratus | Nocturnal | Breeding 24 | refuse dump 25 | family-association,24,26 dominance displays 27 |
| information transfer 28,29,30 |
References: 1 = Ceballos and Donázar (1990), 2 = Donázar et al. (1996), 3 = Margalida and Boudet (2003), 4 = van Overveld et al. (2020), 5 = Porter and Suleiman (2012), 6 = Xirouchakis and Mylonas (2004), 7 = Xirouchakis (2007), 8 = Harel et al. (2017), 9 = Olea and Mateo-Tomás (2009), 10 = Acha et al. (1998), 11 = Sauer (1973), 12 = Bamford et al. (2010), 13 = Mullié et al. (2017), 14 = Ssemmanda et al. (2005), 15 = Lambertucci et al. (2008), 16 = Lambertucci (2013), 17 = Lambertucci (2010), 18 = Lambertucci and Ruggiero (2013), 19 = Donázar and Feijóo (2002), 20 = Baker and Whitacre (1996), 21 = Mcvey et al. (2008), 22 = Buckley (1998), 23 = Evans and Sordahl (2009), 24 = Rabenold (1986), 25 = Novaes and Cintra (2013), 26 = Parker et al. (1995), 27 = Rabenold (1987a), 28 = Rabenold (1987b), 29 = Buckley (1996), 30 = Buckley 1997 (no data from actual roosting behavior).
a Personal communication T. van Overveld and J. A. Donázar.
b Personal observation G. Blanco.
c No evidence for foraging information transfer at Turkey Vulture roosts (Buckley 1997, Prior and Weatherhead 2004).
Overview of studies on nocturnal and diurnal gatherings in vultures. In the majority of species, gatherings are characterized by strong seasonal social dynamics (i.e. increases in group size outside the reproductive period). Age-specific roosts (where adults and immatures roost at different locations) are reported for Andean Condors only. Note that nocturnal roosts are nearly always located close to predictable food resources and/or linked to transhumance, while diurnal gatherings are formed at food resources and near water ponds. Also, note that dominance interactions are not restricted to gatherings at food resources, but also at diurnal resting sites and nocturnal roosts. Evidence for social information transfer on food locations is reported for 2 species (Gyps fulvus and Coragyps atratus).
| Species . | Gathering type . | Seasonal dynamics . | Environmental factors . | Social interactions . |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Neophron percnopterus | Nocturnal | Breeding,1 migration 1 | refuse dump,2,3 livestock (farms),2 feeding station a | age/dominance-specific roosting place a |
| Diurnal | Breeding 4 | feeding station,4 food bonanzas,5 waterponds 5 | dominance displays, copulations | |
| allopreening (mate-seeking, pair-bonding) 4,5 | ||||
| Gyps fulvus | Nocturnal | Breeding 6,7 | feeding station,8 livestock (transhumance) 6,7,9 | foraging information transfer 8 |
| Diurnal | feeding station 8,10 | Observing 8,10 b | ||
| Torgos tracheliotos | Diurnal | waterponds,11 carcasses 12 | dominance displays,11,12 pair-bonding 11 | |
| Necrosyrtes monachus | Nocturnal | Breeding 13 | Slaughterhouses 13,14 | |
| Gyps coprotheres | Diurnal | waterponds 11 | dominance displays (low) 10 | |
| Vultur gryphus | Nocturnal | age-specific 15,16 | weather (thermals, cold stress),17,18,19 livestock (farms, transhumance)16 | age/dominance-specific roosting place 18 |
| Sarcoramphus papa | Diurnal | waterponds 20 | ||
| Cathartes aura | Nocturnal c | Breeding 21 | predation 22,23 | age/dominance-specific roosting place 23 |
| Coragyps atratus | Nocturnal | Breeding 24 | refuse dump 25 | family-association,24,26 dominance displays 27 |
| information transfer 28,29,30 |
| Species . | Gathering type . | Seasonal dynamics . | Environmental factors . | Social interactions . |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Neophron percnopterus | Nocturnal | Breeding,1 migration 1 | refuse dump,2,3 livestock (farms),2 feeding station a | age/dominance-specific roosting place a |
| Diurnal | Breeding 4 | feeding station,4 food bonanzas,5 waterponds 5 | dominance displays, copulations | |
| allopreening (mate-seeking, pair-bonding) 4,5 | ||||
| Gyps fulvus | Nocturnal | Breeding 6,7 | feeding station,8 livestock (transhumance) 6,7,9 | foraging information transfer 8 |
| Diurnal | feeding station 8,10 | Observing 8,10 b | ||
| Torgos tracheliotos | Diurnal | waterponds,11 carcasses 12 | dominance displays,11,12 pair-bonding 11 | |
| Necrosyrtes monachus | Nocturnal | Breeding 13 | Slaughterhouses 13,14 | |
| Gyps coprotheres | Diurnal | waterponds 11 | dominance displays (low) 10 | |
| Vultur gryphus | Nocturnal | age-specific 15,16 | weather (thermals, cold stress),17,18,19 livestock (farms, transhumance)16 | age/dominance-specific roosting place 18 |
| Sarcoramphus papa | Diurnal | waterponds 20 | ||
| Cathartes aura | Nocturnal c | Breeding 21 | predation 22,23 | age/dominance-specific roosting place 23 |
| Coragyps atratus | Nocturnal | Breeding 24 | refuse dump 25 | family-association,24,26 dominance displays 27 |
| information transfer 28,29,30 |
References: 1 = Ceballos and Donázar (1990), 2 = Donázar et al. (1996), 3 = Margalida and Boudet (2003), 4 = van Overveld et al. (2020), 5 = Porter and Suleiman (2012), 6 = Xirouchakis and Mylonas (2004), 7 = Xirouchakis (2007), 8 = Harel et al. (2017), 9 = Olea and Mateo-Tomás (2009), 10 = Acha et al. (1998), 11 = Sauer (1973), 12 = Bamford et al. (2010), 13 = Mullié et al. (2017), 14 = Ssemmanda et al. (2005), 15 = Lambertucci et al. (2008), 16 = Lambertucci (2013), 17 = Lambertucci (2010), 18 = Lambertucci and Ruggiero (2013), 19 = Donázar and Feijóo (2002), 20 = Baker and Whitacre (1996), 21 = Mcvey et al. (2008), 22 = Buckley (1998), 23 = Evans and Sordahl (2009), 24 = Rabenold (1986), 25 = Novaes and Cintra (2013), 26 = Parker et al. (1995), 27 = Rabenold (1987a), 28 = Rabenold (1987b), 29 = Buckley (1996), 30 = Buckley 1997 (no data from actual roosting behavior).
a Personal communication T. van Overveld and J. A. Donázar.
b Personal observation G. Blanco.
c No evidence for foraging information transfer at Turkey Vulture roosts (Buckley 1997, Prior and Weatherhead 2004).
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