About 56% of women received WIC benefits during pregnancy (Table 1), and about 40% delivered before October 2009, when the revised food packages were available. Compared with nonrecipients, WIC recipients were more likely to be black, unmarried, younger, less educated, and lower income, with worse nutritional status. Of note, DID assumes that trends (not levels) of the outcomes were similar during the prerevision period, an assumption that we validated graphically and quantitatively (see Web Appendix 1, Web Figure 2, Web Table 2).
Sample Characteristics, Conditions Affecting Neurocognitive Development and Learning in Early Childhood Study, Shelby County, Tennessee, 2006–2011
| Characteristica . | No WIC in Pregnancy . | WIC in Pregnancy . | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| (n = 548) . | (n = 711) . | |||
| Mean (SD) . | % . | Mean (SD) . | % . | |
| Mother’s age, years | 28.9 (4.9) | 24.5 (5.1) | ||
| Mother married | 86.1 | 38.5 | ||
| Annual household income, $ | ||||
| <10,000 | 5.6 | 30.6 | ||
| 10,000–24,999 | 7.3 | 33.1 | ||
| 25,000–44,999 | 16.3 | 21.6 | ||
| 45,000–74,999 | 33.7 | 12.7 | ||
| ≥75,000 | 37.1 | 2.0 | ||
| Female child | 50.9 | 50.1 | ||
| Race/ethnicity | ||||
| Black | 33.4 | 86.8 | ||
| White/otherb | 66.6 | 13.2 | ||
| Mother’s education | ||||
| Less than high school | 4.2 | 14.2 | ||
| High school | 25.5 | 63.3 | ||
| More than high school | 70.3 | 22.5 | ||
| No. of people in household | 4.1 (1.2) | 4.7 (1.6) | ||
| Delivered before October 2009 | 36.1 | 41.6 | ||
| Child received WIC at 1 month postpartum | 21.2 | 87.2 | ||
| Outcome variables during pregnancy | ||||
| Healthy Eating Index | ||||
| Total score | 64.6 (10.3) | 57.7 (10.9) | ||
| Component 1: total vegetables | 4.0 (1.0) | 3.5 (1.2) | ||
| Component 2: dark green vegetables and legumes | 3.9 (1.4) | 3.3 (1.6) | ||
| Component 3: total fruit | 4.2 (1.2) | 4.0 (1.3) | ||
| Component 4: whole fruit | 4.2 (1.2) | 3.7 (1.5) | ||
| Component 5: whole grains | 4.8 (2.6) | 3.9 (2.4) | ||
| Component 6: milk | 6.4 (2.5) | 5.7 (2.3) | ||
| Component 7: meat and beans | 4.5 (0.7) | 4.5 (0.8) | ||
| Component 8: seafood and plant protein | 3.6 (1.4) | 2.9 (1.5) | ||
| Component 9: fatty acid ratio | 5.4 (2.4) | 4.8 (2.2) | ||
| Component 10: sodium | 3.7 (2.2) | 3.8 (2.4) | ||
| Component 11: refined grains | 7.7 (2.1) | 7.7 (2.1) | ||
| Component 12: solid fat, excess alcohol, added sugars | 12.2 (3.8) | 9.8 (3.7) | ||
| Nutrient densityc | ||||
| Protein | 38.6 (6.4) | 36.5 (5.9) | ||
| Fat | 40.0 (5.8) | 41.0 (5.4) | ||
| Carbohydrates | 127.8 (16.3) | 125.6 (16.2) | ||
| Characteristica . | No WIC in Pregnancy . | WIC in Pregnancy . | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| (n = 548) . | (n = 711) . | |||
| Mean (SD) . | % . | Mean (SD) . | % . | |
| Mother’s age, years | 28.9 (4.9) | 24.5 (5.1) | ||
| Mother married | 86.1 | 38.5 | ||
| Annual household income, $ | ||||
| <10,000 | 5.6 | 30.6 | ||
| 10,000–24,999 | 7.3 | 33.1 | ||
| 25,000–44,999 | 16.3 | 21.6 | ||
| 45,000–74,999 | 33.7 | 12.7 | ||
| ≥75,000 | 37.1 | 2.0 | ||
| Female child | 50.9 | 50.1 | ||
| Race/ethnicity | ||||
| Black | 33.4 | 86.8 | ||
| White/otherb | 66.6 | 13.2 | ||
| Mother’s education | ||||
| Less than high school | 4.2 | 14.2 | ||
| High school | 25.5 | 63.3 | ||
| More than high school | 70.3 | 22.5 | ||
| No. of people in household | 4.1 (1.2) | 4.7 (1.6) | ||
| Delivered before October 2009 | 36.1 | 41.6 | ||
| Child received WIC at 1 month postpartum | 21.2 | 87.2 | ||
| Outcome variables during pregnancy | ||||
| Healthy Eating Index | ||||
| Total score | 64.6 (10.3) | 57.7 (10.9) | ||
| Component 1: total vegetables | 4.0 (1.0) | 3.5 (1.2) | ||
| Component 2: dark green vegetables and legumes | 3.9 (1.4) | 3.3 (1.6) | ||
| Component 3: total fruit | 4.2 (1.2) | 4.0 (1.3) | ||
| Component 4: whole fruit | 4.2 (1.2) | 3.7 (1.5) | ||
| Component 5: whole grains | 4.8 (2.6) | 3.9 (2.4) | ||
| Component 6: milk | 6.4 (2.5) | 5.7 (2.3) | ||
| Component 7: meat and beans | 4.5 (0.7) | 4.5 (0.8) | ||
| Component 8: seafood and plant protein | 3.6 (1.4) | 2.9 (1.5) | ||
| Component 9: fatty acid ratio | 5.4 (2.4) | 4.8 (2.2) | ||
| Component 10: sodium | 3.7 (2.2) | 3.8 (2.4) | ||
| Component 11: refined grains | 7.7 (2.1) | 7.7 (2.1) | ||
| Component 12: solid fat, excess alcohol, added sugars | 12.2 (3.8) | 9.8 (3.7) | ||
| Nutrient densityc | ||||
| Protein | 38.6 (6.4) | 36.5 (5.9) | ||
| Fat | 40.0 (5.8) | 41.0 (5.4) | ||
| Carbohydrates | 127.8 (16.3) | 125.6 (16.2) | ||
Abbreviations: SD, standard deviation; WIC, Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children.
an = 1,454 (data on WIC receipt was missing for 195 participants). Sample characteristics were calculated using unimputed data.
b Only 1.9% of sample were Hispanic or other race/ethnicity. These were included in the “white” category to avoid unstable estimates due to small cell sizes.
c Nutrient density outcomes represent grams of each nutrient × 1,000 divided by the total kcal of dietary intake per day.
Sample Characteristics, Conditions Affecting Neurocognitive Development and Learning in Early Childhood Study, Shelby County, Tennessee, 2006–2011
| Characteristica . | No WIC in Pregnancy . | WIC in Pregnancy . | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| (n = 548) . | (n = 711) . | |||
| Mean (SD) . | % . | Mean (SD) . | % . | |
| Mother’s age, years | 28.9 (4.9) | 24.5 (5.1) | ||
| Mother married | 86.1 | 38.5 | ||
| Annual household income, $ | ||||
| <10,000 | 5.6 | 30.6 | ||
| 10,000–24,999 | 7.3 | 33.1 | ||
| 25,000–44,999 | 16.3 | 21.6 | ||
| 45,000–74,999 | 33.7 | 12.7 | ||
| ≥75,000 | 37.1 | 2.0 | ||
| Female child | 50.9 | 50.1 | ||
| Race/ethnicity | ||||
| Black | 33.4 | 86.8 | ||
| White/otherb | 66.6 | 13.2 | ||
| Mother’s education | ||||
| Less than high school | 4.2 | 14.2 | ||
| High school | 25.5 | 63.3 | ||
| More than high school | 70.3 | 22.5 | ||
| No. of people in household | 4.1 (1.2) | 4.7 (1.6) | ||
| Delivered before October 2009 | 36.1 | 41.6 | ||
| Child received WIC at 1 month postpartum | 21.2 | 87.2 | ||
| Outcome variables during pregnancy | ||||
| Healthy Eating Index | ||||
| Total score | 64.6 (10.3) | 57.7 (10.9) | ||
| Component 1: total vegetables | 4.0 (1.0) | 3.5 (1.2) | ||
| Component 2: dark green vegetables and legumes | 3.9 (1.4) | 3.3 (1.6) | ||
| Component 3: total fruit | 4.2 (1.2) | 4.0 (1.3) | ||
| Component 4: whole fruit | 4.2 (1.2) | 3.7 (1.5) | ||
| Component 5: whole grains | 4.8 (2.6) | 3.9 (2.4) | ||
| Component 6: milk | 6.4 (2.5) | 5.7 (2.3) | ||
| Component 7: meat and beans | 4.5 (0.7) | 4.5 (0.8) | ||
| Component 8: seafood and plant protein | 3.6 (1.4) | 2.9 (1.5) | ||
| Component 9: fatty acid ratio | 5.4 (2.4) | 4.8 (2.2) | ||
| Component 10: sodium | 3.7 (2.2) | 3.8 (2.4) | ||
| Component 11: refined grains | 7.7 (2.1) | 7.7 (2.1) | ||
| Component 12: solid fat, excess alcohol, added sugars | 12.2 (3.8) | 9.8 (3.7) | ||
| Nutrient densityc | ||||
| Protein | 38.6 (6.4) | 36.5 (5.9) | ||
| Fat | 40.0 (5.8) | 41.0 (5.4) | ||
| Carbohydrates | 127.8 (16.3) | 125.6 (16.2) | ||
| Characteristica . | No WIC in Pregnancy . | WIC in Pregnancy . | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| (n = 548) . | (n = 711) . | |||
| Mean (SD) . | % . | Mean (SD) . | % . | |
| Mother’s age, years | 28.9 (4.9) | 24.5 (5.1) | ||
| Mother married | 86.1 | 38.5 | ||
| Annual household income, $ | ||||
| <10,000 | 5.6 | 30.6 | ||
| 10,000–24,999 | 7.3 | 33.1 | ||
| 25,000–44,999 | 16.3 | 21.6 | ||
| 45,000–74,999 | 33.7 | 12.7 | ||
| ≥75,000 | 37.1 | 2.0 | ||
| Female child | 50.9 | 50.1 | ||
| Race/ethnicity | ||||
| Black | 33.4 | 86.8 | ||
| White/otherb | 66.6 | 13.2 | ||
| Mother’s education | ||||
| Less than high school | 4.2 | 14.2 | ||
| High school | 25.5 | 63.3 | ||
| More than high school | 70.3 | 22.5 | ||
| No. of people in household | 4.1 (1.2) | 4.7 (1.6) | ||
| Delivered before October 2009 | 36.1 | 41.6 | ||
| Child received WIC at 1 month postpartum | 21.2 | 87.2 | ||
| Outcome variables during pregnancy | ||||
| Healthy Eating Index | ||||
| Total score | 64.6 (10.3) | 57.7 (10.9) | ||
| Component 1: total vegetables | 4.0 (1.0) | 3.5 (1.2) | ||
| Component 2: dark green vegetables and legumes | 3.9 (1.4) | 3.3 (1.6) | ||
| Component 3: total fruit | 4.2 (1.2) | 4.0 (1.3) | ||
| Component 4: whole fruit | 4.2 (1.2) | 3.7 (1.5) | ||
| Component 5: whole grains | 4.8 (2.6) | 3.9 (2.4) | ||
| Component 6: milk | 6.4 (2.5) | 5.7 (2.3) | ||
| Component 7: meat and beans | 4.5 (0.7) | 4.5 (0.8) | ||
| Component 8: seafood and plant protein | 3.6 (1.4) | 2.9 (1.5) | ||
| Component 9: fatty acid ratio | 5.4 (2.4) | 4.8 (2.2) | ||
| Component 10: sodium | 3.7 (2.2) | 3.8 (2.4) | ||
| Component 11: refined grains | 7.7 (2.1) | 7.7 (2.1) | ||
| Component 12: solid fat, excess alcohol, added sugars | 12.2 (3.8) | 9.8 (3.7) | ||
| Nutrient densityc | ||||
| Protein | 38.6 (6.4) | 36.5 (5.9) | ||
| Fat | 40.0 (5.8) | 41.0 (5.4) | ||
| Carbohydrates | 127.8 (16.3) | 125.6 (16.2) | ||
Abbreviations: SD, standard deviation; WIC, Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children.
an = 1,454 (data on WIC receipt was missing for 195 participants). Sample characteristics were calculated using unimputed data.
b Only 1.9% of sample were Hispanic or other race/ethnicity. These were included in the “white” category to avoid unstable estimates due to small cell sizes.
c Nutrient density outcomes represent grams of each nutrient × 1,000 divided by the total kcal of dietary intake per day.
This PDF is available to Subscribers Only
View Article Abstract & Purchase OptionsFor full access to this pdf, sign in to an existing account, or purchase an annual subscription.
