Table 2. Open in new tab Effects of...

Response variables	Incidence of naturalization	Extent of naturalization (log)
Models 1	n = 591, R²_lr =0.123			n = 281, R²_lr = 0.020
Fruit heteromorphism (FHM)	19.26***	4.100***	0.085	0.931	0.668	0.001
Models 2	n = 584, R²_lr = 0.179			n = 279, R²_lr = 0.100
FHM	2.208*	2.824**	0.003	1.134	0.922	0.000
Life history	–4.983***	–3.323***	0.038	–3.409***	–3.317**	0.052
Plant height	3.532***	4.007***	0.107	–0.075	0.099	0.001
FHM × life history	0.506	0.342	0.000	–0.742	–0.564	0.001
FHM × plant height	2.223*	2.976**	0.029	2.516*	2.879**	0.032

Response variables

Incidence of naturalization

Extent of naturalization (log)

Explanatory variables

χ²/GLM

Phylo GLM

R²_par

Phylo LM

R²_par

Models 1

n = 591, R²_lr =0.123

n = 281, R²_lr = 0.020

Fruit heteromorphism (FHM)

19.26***

4.100***

0.085

0.931

0.668

0.001

Models 2

n = 584, R²_lr = 0.179

n = 279, R²_lr = 0.100

FHM

2.208*

2.824**

0.003

1.134

0.922

0.000

Life history

–4.983***

–3.323***

0.038

–3.409***

–3.317**

0.052

Plant height

3.532***

4.007***

0.107

–0.075

0.099

0.001

FHM × life history

0.506

0.342

0.000

–0.742

–0.564

0.001

FHM × plant height

2.223*

2.976**

0.029

2.516*

2.879**

0.032

Response variables	Incidence of naturalization	Extent of naturalization (log)
Models 1	n = 591, R²_lr =0.123			n = 281, R²_lr = 0.020
Fruit heteromorphism (FHM)	19.26***	4.100***	0.085	0.931	0.668	0.001
Models 2	n = 584, R²_lr = 0.179			n = 279, R²_lr = 0.100
FHM	2.208*	2.824**	0.003	1.134	0.922	0.000
Life history	–4.983***	–3.323***	0.038	–3.409***	–3.317**	0.052
Plant height	3.532***	4.007***	0.107	–0.075	0.099	0.001
FHM × life history	0.506	0.342	0.000	–0.742	–0.564	0.001
FHM × plant height	2.223*	2.976**	0.029	2.516*	2.879**	0.032

Table 2.

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Effects of fruit heteromorphism vs. monomorphism on the incidence of naturalization (expressed as being naturalized somewhere in the world or not) and extent of naturalization (natural log-transformed number of regions where the species is naturalized) of ornamental Asteraceae species (Models 1), and effect of heteromorphism vs. monomorphism, annual/biennial vs. perennial life history, plant height and pair-wise interactions between heteromorphism and the other two traits on the same response variables (Models 2).

Response variables	Incidence of naturalization			Extent of naturalization (log)
Explanatory variables	χ²/GLM	Phylo GLM	R²_par	LM	Phylo LM	R²_par
Models 1	n = 591, R²_lr =0.123			n = 281, R²_lr = 0.020
Fruit heteromorphism (FHM)	19.26***	4.100***	0.085	0.931	0.668	0.001
Models 2	n = 584, R²_lr = 0.179			n = 279, R²_lr = 0.100
FHM	2.208*	2.824**	0.003	1.134	0.922	0.000
Life history	–4.983***	–3.323***	0.038	–3.409***	–3.317**	0.052
Plant height	3.532***	4.007***	0.107	–0.075	0.099	0.001
FHM × life history	0.506	0.342	0.000	–0.742	–0.564	0.001
FHM × plant height	2.223*	2.976**	0.029	2.516*	2.879**	0.032

Response variables	Incidence of naturalization			Extent of naturalization (log)
Explanatory variables	χ²/GLM	Phylo GLM	R²_par	LM	Phylo LM	R²_par
Models 1	n = 591, R²_lr =0.123			n = 281, R²_lr = 0.020
Fruit heteromorphism (FHM)	19.26***	4.100***	0.085	0.931	0.668	0.001
Models 2	n = 584, R²_lr = 0.179			n = 279, R²_lr = 0.100
FHM	2.208*	2.824**	0.003	1.134	0.922	0.000
Life history	–4.983***	–3.323***	0.038	–3.409***	–3.317**	0.052
Plant height	3.532***	4.007***	0.107	–0.075	0.099	0.001
FHM × life history	0.506	0.342	0.000	–0.742	–0.564	0.001
FHM × plant height	2.223*	2.976**	0.029	2.516*	2.879**	0.032

Pearson’s χ² test of contingency in univariate models and generalized linear models (GLMs) in multivariate models, followed by phylogenetic logistic regressions, were used in the case of incidence of naturalization (z statistics are shown), and linear models (LMs) followed by phylogenetic linear regressions in the case of extent of naturalization (t statistics are shown) in both models.

Asterisks denote significance at *P < 0.05, **P < 0.01, ***P < 0.001.

Total explained variance of the models (R²_lr), and the partial variances explained by each variable (R²_par) are also shown.

Sample size refers to the total number of species in the analysed datasets.

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