Table 1. Open in new tab Characteristics...

Table 1.

Characteristics of included studies

References and study design	Population	Campaign
Campaigns targeting general adult populations
Allamani et al. (2000) Cross-sectional	Campaign location and reach Rifredi Health District (population 16,900), Florence, Italy. 5,000 carousels were disseminated Campaign context A component of a 6-year community alcohol project, which included a school program unit and training for healthcare workers and volunteers. The project had an aim to change local alcohol policy. Local TV and newspapers publicized the ‘carousel’ initiative prior to its implementation Target population Whole community Comparison group None	Campaign objective Increase awareness about responsible consumption of wine and other alcoholic drinks Media channel(s) Posters displayed in buses. ‘Carousel’ information tool (rotatable disk presented in a yellow envelope with ‘Take home a carousel’ printed on the outside) distributed via racks at GPs, pharmacies, schools, shops and bars, sent by mail to homes and distributed at local events
Barber et al. (1989) Cluster non-randomized controlled trial (exposure to pre-campaign letter in both groups was randomized at the individual level, forming a 2 × 2 design)	Campaign location and reach Townsville, North Queensland, Australia. Local reach Target population Adult alcohol drinkers Comparison group Community (Cairns) not exposed to TV advertisement but sent pre-campaign letters	Campaign objective Reduce alcohol consumption Media channel(s) TV advertisement, pre-campaign postal letter
Barber (1990) Uncontrolled before and after study with a separate exposed group measured post-campaign only	Campaign location and reach Australia, national reach Campaign context The beginning of a government 3-year National Campaign Against Drug Abuse Target population The general population Comparison group None.	Campaign objective Educate the public in the responsible use of drugs, with an emphasis on attitudes. Sought to raise public concern about the prevention of drug abuse generally Media channel(s) Radio, television and newspaper advertisements. Printed glossy booklet delivered to homes
Casswell et al. (1990) Cluster non-randomized controlled trial with separate repeated cross-sectional component	Campaign location and reach Four cities in New Zealand (each of 40,000–60,000 population). Local media channels used Target population Initially males 18–30 years, subsequently males 16–20 years. Comparison group Group exposed to mass media campaign plus community action. Control group not exposed to mass media or community action.	Campaign objective Increase awareness and support for relevant public policy on alcohol use. Change attitudes about alcohol use (more moderated drinking patterns and shift to non-alcoholic drinks). Wider community-level objectives included an increasing the amount of alcohol-related material (excluding industry promotion) in the local print media and radio programmes Media channel(s) Television, radio, newspaper, posters, cinema advertisements
Dixon et al. (2015) Interrupted time series	Campaign location and reach Western Australia, state-wide Target population Women aged 25–54 Comparison group None	Campaign objective Increase awareness of the link between alcohol and cancer among women. Specifically, the campaign aimed to increase awareness of long-term risky drinking, particularly in relation to alcohol-caused cancer Media channel(s) TV advertisements supported by print advertisements, community posters, web-based information and unpaid media strategies
Grønbæk et al. (2001) Interrupted time series	Campaign location and reach Denmark, national reach Target population Different target groups in different years e.g. people in their forties, heavy drinkers, whole population Comparison group None	Campaign objective Highlight alcohol consumption in order to promote interest in and understanding of alcohol prevention and treatment. Raise awareness and knowledge among adults of sensible levels of alcohol consumption. Reduce the consumption of alcohol in the whole of society in order to prevent alcohol-related injuries. The long-term objective of the annual campaigns was to bring about a reduction in the consumption of alcohol in Denmark Media channel(s) Television spots, information trailers and advertisements, booklet, newspaper advertisements, direct mail, outdoor media, alcohol unit counter tools
Kaariainen et al. (2008) Cross-sectional	Campaign location and reach Tampere, Finland. All households (200,000 population and 90,000 households) Target population General population Comparison group None	Campaign objective Promote a change in the culture of alcohol consumption and increase open discussion about alcohol Media channel(s) A pamphlet, designed for the campaign, delivered to homes
Karlsson et al. (2005) Cluster quasi-randomized controlled trial	Campaign location and reach Helsinki, Finland. Eight postal areas (86,400 households) Target population Males 30–49 years Comparison group Eight postal areas not receiving the pamphlet (40,900 households)	Campaign objective Support self-control of drinking Media channel(s) Information pamphlet, specially designed and delivered to homes, the size of a CD cover
Plant et al. (1979) Cohort study with independent samples pre- and post-test	Campaign location and reach Scotland, UK. Regional reach Target population Alcoholics and the general public Comparison group None	Campaign objective Persuade alcoholics to seek treatment and educate the public about alcoholism and agencies available to help problem drinkers. The possibility was also envisaged that the campaign might lead to a reduction in alcohol consumption by the general public, at least in the short term, although this was not a primary objective Media channel(s) TV films and newspaper advertisements
Siriwardhana et al. (2013) Cross-sectional for mass media outcomes but study included a cluster-randomized controlled design	Campaign location and reach Sri Lanka, rural village, local reach Target population Adult males Comparison group None for mass media outcomes	Campaign objective Educate the community about low-risk drinking (less than the equivalent of three standard drinks a day). Highlight the benefits of restricting amounts of drinking Media channel(s) Posters, recordings of street dramas distributed on DVD and leaflets delivered to homes
Wallack (1982) Repeated cross-sectional with control group	Campaign location and reach About half of Oakland and the city of San Leandro in Alameda County and the cities of El Cerrito, Richmond and San Pablo in Contra Costa County, California, USA Target population Initially males 18–35 years. Expanded to include females 25–40 years, Spanish heritage people and youth 14–17 years Comparison group City of Stockton in San Joaquin County, California, USA	Campaign objective Reduce the consumption of alcoholic beverages and lower the incidence of alcohol-related problems in the general population. Encourage more responsible drinking practices among current drinkers and thus obviate the need for treatment. Increase awareness and level of information about alcohol. Change attitudes regarding alcohol use Media channel(s) Television, radio, billboard displays, bus cards
Campaigns targeting young people and/or their parents
Atkinson et al. (2011) Qualitative	Campaign location and reach UK. 943,644 views (unclear if all from UK) Target population Young people Comparison group None	Campaign objective Create peer to peer conversations regarding the negative effects of binge drinking. The long-term aim of the campaign was to create behaviour change by delivering sensible drinking messages in a non-patronizing way through the Hollyoaks brand Media channel(s) Online video reinforced and promoted through online discussion boards, character social media pages and blogs/video blogs, interviews with actors and interactive features such as a quiz, which assessed viewers’ recall of storylines, alcohol units and binge drinking knowledge and statistics relating to the negative effects of alcohol consumption
Flynn et al. (2006) Repeated cross-sectional with control group	Campaign location and reach Vermont, USA. Local reach Target population Adolescents in 8 school districts in grades 4–5 at start of intervention and grades 7–8 at end, parents of youth ages 9–13 and retail clerks Comparison group Adolescents in grades 7–8 in the 8 school districts which received no intervention	Campaign objective Reduce demand for alcohol among early adolescents by changing specific mediators of alcohol use and control alcohol supply. Parent objectives were to increase communication and limit alcohol supply. Retailer component focused on reducing access to alcohol by underage customers Media channel(s) Television (youth and parents), radio (parents) and video (retail clerks)
Kelley et al. (2000) Repeated cross-sectional	Campaign location and reach Colorado, New Jersey and Washington, USA. Four rural communities each with populations of <30,000 Target population Adolescent females Comparison group None	Campaign objective Combat alcohol and tobacco use Media channel(s) Broadcast media (radio and TV), print media (newspaper, billboard), posters and tray liners in the school cafeteria and local fast food restaurants
Kypri et al. (2005) Cluster non-randomized controlled trial	Campaign location and reach Two communities in the south island of New Zealand. Districts of Ashburton (population 25,446) and Waitaki (20,088) Target population Parents of adolescents Comparison group Clutha district (population 17,172). All year 11, 12 and 13 students and from all households in the district with a teenager in years 9–13 at either of Clutha district’s secondary schools	Campaign objective (i) Increase the knowledge of adults in the Ashburton and Waitaki districts of the risks of supplying alcohol to teenagers; (ii) encourage a change of attitude such that a teenager’s parent is considered the only appropriate supplier of alcohol, and that teenage drinking should occur only under adult supervision; and (iii) effect a reduction in the percentage of adults who supply alcohol to teenagers for unsupervised consumption Media channel(s) Local newspaper, print media, local radio, media events, billboard advertisements, the distribution of printed material and the presentation of campaign information at point of sale. In two communities, a range of awareness-raising events for youth and adults were held
Scheier (2010) Age-cohort study	Campaign location and reach USA, national campaign Target population Youth 9–18 years and their parents. Other influential adults (e.g. staff at alcohol selling outlets) Comparison group None	Campaign objective Educate and enable America’s youths to reject illegal drugs. Reduce adolescent initiation of drug use. Curtail use among those already engaged Media channel(s) Radio, television, newsprint, magazines, movies, billboards, advertisements on buses, at malls, at sports events
Surkan et al. (2003) Cross-sectional	Campaign location and reach Massachusetts, USA. Radio stations reaching Boston, Worcester, Cape Cod, Franklin County, New Bedford area and Springfield area Target population Parents Comparison group None	Campaign objective Promote parent–child communication about alcohol use Media channel(s) Radio advertisement (paid)
Trees (2015) Cross-sectional and qualitative	Campaign location and reach Broome and surrounding areas, Western Australia. Local reach Target population Indigenous youth in Broome and the wider Kimberley region (the broadcast area of Goolarri TV and Radio) Comparison group None	Campaign objective Alcohol awareness Media channel(s) Television and radio (both local)
van Gemert et al. (2011) Cross-sectional	Campaign location and reach Australia, national reach Target population Young people 15–25 years and their parents Comparison group None	Campaign objective Raise awareness of the harms and costs associated with risky drinking among young Australians, and to deliver personally relevant messages to encourage, motivate and support the primary target groups to modify their behaviour Media channel(s) A range of mass media strategies and outlets including television, cinema, radio, online advertising, brochures and out-of-home print advertisements such as free postcard advertising, washroom mirrors in nightclubs, street posters, stencil chalking and on street furniture
van Leeuwen (2013) Cohort study	Campaign location and reach Netherlands, national reach Target population Less educated adolescents (high school students receiving preparatory middle-level applied education) Comparison group Participants who reported that they had seen one episode or less and did not complete any of the five surveys between pre- and post-test	Campaign objective Favourably influence beliefs about the consequences of substance use, e.g. as being damaging to health, intentions, and behaviour concerning the use of substances Media channel(s) National TV and online viewing via an emailed link
Campaigns targeting pregnant women or women of childbearing age
Awopetu et al. (2008) Historically controlled study	Campaign location and reach Essex and Atlantic Counties, New Jersey, USA. Unknown reach as messages were communicated along major transit routes Target population Women of childbearing age Comparison group None but the authors narratively compared the outcome to that achieved in a historic period	Campaign objective Urge women to not drink alcohol if they are pregnant and to avoid alcohol if they could become pregnant in order to reduce risks Media channel(s) Billboard posters along transit routes, interiors of subway trains and city buses, local newspapers, radio public service announcements, printed materials (countertop inserts and brochures)
Casiro et al. (1994) Interrupted time series	Campaign location and reach Manitoba, Canada. Province-wide campaign Target population General public and all physicians in Manitoba Comparison group None	Campaign objective Increase awareness of the dangers of drinking during pregnancy Media channel(s) TV, brochure
Hanson et al. (2012) Cross-sectional	Campaign location and reach American Indian communities in the Northern Plains, USA Target population General population Comparison group None	Campaign objective Increase awareness of foetal alcohol syndrome disease, the effects of alcohol on the unborn child and reduce alcohol consumption Media channel(s) Posters, radio adverts, newspaper adverts, brochures
Lowe et al. (2010) Cluster quasi-randomized controlled trial	Campaign location and reach Iowa, USA. Ten agencies/sites Target population Pregnant women Comparison group Women in 10 agencies randomized to receive advice and opportunity to watch TV commercial only (not exposed to the videotape/DVD+pamphlet)	Campaign objective Increase interpersonal discussions and knowledge about the dangers of alcohol use during pregnancy Media channel(s) Videotape/DVD, printed pamphlet (both groups exposed to TV commercial— no details reported)

References and study design	Population	Campaign
Campaigns targeting general adult populations
Allamani et al. (2000) Cross-sectional	Campaign location and reach Rifredi Health District (population 16,900), Florence, Italy. 5,000 carousels were disseminated Campaign context A component of a 6-year community alcohol project, which included a school program unit and training for healthcare workers and volunteers. The project had an aim to change local alcohol policy. Local TV and newspapers publicized the ‘carousel’ initiative prior to its implementation Target population Whole community Comparison group None	Campaign objective Increase awareness about responsible consumption of wine and other alcoholic drinks Media channel(s) Posters displayed in buses. ‘Carousel’ information tool (rotatable disk presented in a yellow envelope with ‘Take home a carousel’ printed on the outside) distributed via racks at GPs, pharmacies, schools, shops and bars, sent by mail to homes and distributed at local events
Barber et al. (1989) Cluster non-randomized controlled trial (exposure to pre-campaign letter in both groups was randomized at the individual level, forming a 2 × 2 design)	Campaign location and reach Townsville, North Queensland, Australia. Local reach Target population Adult alcohol drinkers Comparison group Community (Cairns) not exposed to TV advertisement but sent pre-campaign letters	Campaign objective Reduce alcohol consumption Media channel(s) TV advertisement, pre-campaign postal letter
Barber (1990) Uncontrolled before and after study with a separate exposed group measured post-campaign only	Campaign location and reach Australia, national reach Campaign context The beginning of a government 3-year National Campaign Against Drug Abuse Target population The general population Comparison group None.	Campaign objective Educate the public in the responsible use of drugs, with an emphasis on attitudes. Sought to raise public concern about the prevention of drug abuse generally Media channel(s) Radio, television and newspaper advertisements. Printed glossy booklet delivered to homes
Casswell et al. (1990) Cluster non-randomized controlled trial with separate repeated cross-sectional component	Campaign location and reach Four cities in New Zealand (each of 40,000–60,000 population). Local media channels used Target population Initially males 18–30 years, subsequently males 16–20 years. Comparison group Group exposed to mass media campaign plus community action. Control group not exposed to mass media or community action.	Campaign objective Increase awareness and support for relevant public policy on alcohol use. Change attitudes about alcohol use (more moderated drinking patterns and shift to non-alcoholic drinks). Wider community-level objectives included an increasing the amount of alcohol-related material (excluding industry promotion) in the local print media and radio programmes Media channel(s) Television, radio, newspaper, posters, cinema advertisements
Dixon et al. (2015) Interrupted time series	Campaign location and reach Western Australia, state-wide Target population Women aged 25–54 Comparison group None	Campaign objective Increase awareness of the link between alcohol and cancer among women. Specifically, the campaign aimed to increase awareness of long-term risky drinking, particularly in relation to alcohol-caused cancer Media channel(s) TV advertisements supported by print advertisements, community posters, web-based information and unpaid media strategies
Grønbæk et al. (2001) Interrupted time series	Campaign location and reach Denmark, national reach Target population Different target groups in different years e.g. people in their forties, heavy drinkers, whole population Comparison group None	Campaign objective Highlight alcohol consumption in order to promote interest in and understanding of alcohol prevention and treatment. Raise awareness and knowledge among adults of sensible levels of alcohol consumption. Reduce the consumption of alcohol in the whole of society in order to prevent alcohol-related injuries. The long-term objective of the annual campaigns was to bring about a reduction in the consumption of alcohol in Denmark Media channel(s) Television spots, information trailers and advertisements, booklet, newspaper advertisements, direct mail, outdoor media, alcohol unit counter tools
Kaariainen et al. (2008) Cross-sectional	Campaign location and reach Tampere, Finland. All households (200,000 population and 90,000 households) Target population General population Comparison group None	Campaign objective Promote a change in the culture of alcohol consumption and increase open discussion about alcohol Media channel(s) A pamphlet, designed for the campaign, delivered to homes
Karlsson et al. (2005) Cluster quasi-randomized controlled trial	Campaign location and reach Helsinki, Finland. Eight postal areas (86,400 households) Target population Males 30–49 years Comparison group Eight postal areas not receiving the pamphlet (40,900 households)	Campaign objective Support self-control of drinking Media channel(s) Information pamphlet, specially designed and delivered to homes, the size of a CD cover
Plant et al. (1979) Cohort study with independent samples pre- and post-test	Campaign location and reach Scotland, UK. Regional reach Target population Alcoholics and the general public Comparison group None	Campaign objective Persuade alcoholics to seek treatment and educate the public about alcoholism and agencies available to help problem drinkers. The possibility was also envisaged that the campaign might lead to a reduction in alcohol consumption by the general public, at least in the short term, although this was not a primary objective Media channel(s) TV films and newspaper advertisements
Siriwardhana et al. (2013) Cross-sectional for mass media outcomes but study included a cluster-randomized controlled design	Campaign location and reach Sri Lanka, rural village, local reach Target population Adult males Comparison group None for mass media outcomes	Campaign objective Educate the community about low-risk drinking (less than the equivalent of three standard drinks a day). Highlight the benefits of restricting amounts of drinking Media channel(s) Posters, recordings of street dramas distributed on DVD and leaflets delivered to homes
Wallack (1982) Repeated cross-sectional with control group	Campaign location and reach About half of Oakland and the city of San Leandro in Alameda County and the cities of El Cerrito, Richmond and San Pablo in Contra Costa County, California, USA Target population Initially males 18–35 years. Expanded to include females 25–40 years, Spanish heritage people and youth 14–17 years Comparison group City of Stockton in San Joaquin County, California, USA	Campaign objective Reduce the consumption of alcoholic beverages and lower the incidence of alcohol-related problems in the general population. Encourage more responsible drinking practices among current drinkers and thus obviate the need for treatment. Increase awareness and level of information about alcohol. Change attitudes regarding alcohol use Media channel(s) Television, radio, billboard displays, bus cards
Campaigns targeting young people and/or their parents
Atkinson et al. (2011) Qualitative	Campaign location and reach UK. 943,644 views (unclear if all from UK) Target population Young people Comparison group None	Campaign objective Create peer to peer conversations regarding the negative effects of binge drinking. The long-term aim of the campaign was to create behaviour change by delivering sensible drinking messages in a non-patronizing way through the Hollyoaks brand Media channel(s) Online video reinforced and promoted through online discussion boards, character social media pages and blogs/video blogs, interviews with actors and interactive features such as a quiz, which assessed viewers’ recall of storylines, alcohol units and binge drinking knowledge and statistics relating to the negative effects of alcohol consumption
Flynn et al. (2006) Repeated cross-sectional with control group	Campaign location and reach Vermont, USA. Local reach Target population Adolescents in 8 school districts in grades 4–5 at start of intervention and grades 7–8 at end, parents of youth ages 9–13 and retail clerks Comparison group Adolescents in grades 7–8 in the 8 school districts which received no intervention	Campaign objective Reduce demand for alcohol among early adolescents by changing specific mediators of alcohol use and control alcohol supply. Parent objectives were to increase communication and limit alcohol supply. Retailer component focused on reducing access to alcohol by underage customers Media channel(s) Television (youth and parents), radio (parents) and video (retail clerks)
Kelley et al. (2000) Repeated cross-sectional	Campaign location and reach Colorado, New Jersey and Washington, USA. Four rural communities each with populations of <30,000 Target population Adolescent females Comparison group None	Campaign objective Combat alcohol and tobacco use Media channel(s) Broadcast media (radio and TV), print media (newspaper, billboard), posters and tray liners in the school cafeteria and local fast food restaurants
Kypri et al. (2005) Cluster non-randomized controlled trial	Campaign location and reach Two communities in the south island of New Zealand. Districts of Ashburton (population 25,446) and Waitaki (20,088) Target population Parents of adolescents Comparison group Clutha district (population 17,172). All year 11, 12 and 13 students and from all households in the district with a teenager in years 9–13 at either of Clutha district’s secondary schools	Campaign objective (i) Increase the knowledge of adults in the Ashburton and Waitaki districts of the risks of supplying alcohol to teenagers; (ii) encourage a change of attitude such that a teenager’s parent is considered the only appropriate supplier of alcohol, and that teenage drinking should occur only under adult supervision; and (iii) effect a reduction in the percentage of adults who supply alcohol to teenagers for unsupervised consumption Media channel(s) Local newspaper, print media, local radio, media events, billboard advertisements, the distribution of printed material and the presentation of campaign information at point of sale. In two communities, a range of awareness-raising events for youth and adults were held
Scheier (2010) Age-cohort study	Campaign location and reach USA, national campaign Target population Youth 9–18 years and their parents. Other influential adults (e.g. staff at alcohol selling outlets) Comparison group None	Campaign objective Educate and enable America’s youths to reject illegal drugs. Reduce adolescent initiation of drug use. Curtail use among those already engaged Media channel(s) Radio, television, newsprint, magazines, movies, billboards, advertisements on buses, at malls, at sports events
Surkan et al. (2003) Cross-sectional	Campaign location and reach Massachusetts, USA. Radio stations reaching Boston, Worcester, Cape Cod, Franklin County, New Bedford area and Springfield area Target population Parents Comparison group None	Campaign objective Promote parent–child communication about alcohol use Media channel(s) Radio advertisement (paid)
Trees (2015) Cross-sectional and qualitative	Campaign location and reach Broome and surrounding areas, Western Australia. Local reach Target population Indigenous youth in Broome and the wider Kimberley region (the broadcast area of Goolarri TV and Radio) Comparison group None	Campaign objective Alcohol awareness Media channel(s) Television and radio (both local)
van Gemert et al. (2011) Cross-sectional	Campaign location and reach Australia, national reach Target population Young people 15–25 years and their parents Comparison group None	Campaign objective Raise awareness of the harms and costs associated with risky drinking among young Australians, and to deliver personally relevant messages to encourage, motivate and support the primary target groups to modify their behaviour Media channel(s) A range of mass media strategies and outlets including television, cinema, radio, online advertising, brochures and out-of-home print advertisements such as free postcard advertising, washroom mirrors in nightclubs, street posters, stencil chalking and on street furniture
van Leeuwen (2013) Cohort study	Campaign location and reach Netherlands, national reach Target population Less educated adolescents (high school students receiving preparatory middle-level applied education) Comparison group Participants who reported that they had seen one episode or less and did not complete any of the five surveys between pre- and post-test	Campaign objective Favourably influence beliefs about the consequences of substance use, e.g. as being damaging to health, intentions, and behaviour concerning the use of substances Media channel(s) National TV and online viewing via an emailed link
Campaigns targeting pregnant women or women of childbearing age
Awopetu et al. (2008) Historically controlled study	Campaign location and reach Essex and Atlantic Counties, New Jersey, USA. Unknown reach as messages were communicated along major transit routes Target population Women of childbearing age Comparison group None but the authors narratively compared the outcome to that achieved in a historic period	Campaign objective Urge women to not drink alcohol if they are pregnant and to avoid alcohol if they could become pregnant in order to reduce risks Media channel(s) Billboard posters along transit routes, interiors of subway trains and city buses, local newspapers, radio public service announcements, printed materials (countertop inserts and brochures)
Casiro et al. (1994) Interrupted time series	Campaign location and reach Manitoba, Canada. Province-wide campaign Target population General public and all physicians in Manitoba Comparison group None	Campaign objective Increase awareness of the dangers of drinking during pregnancy Media channel(s) TV, brochure
Hanson et al. (2012) Cross-sectional	Campaign location and reach American Indian communities in the Northern Plains, USA Target population General population Comparison group None	Campaign objective Increase awareness of foetal alcohol syndrome disease, the effects of alcohol on the unborn child and reduce alcohol consumption Media channel(s) Posters, radio adverts, newspaper adverts, brochures
Lowe et al. (2010) Cluster quasi-randomized controlled trial	Campaign location and reach Iowa, USA. Ten agencies/sites Target population Pregnant women Comparison group Women in 10 agencies randomized to receive advice and opportunity to watch TV commercial only (not exposed to the videotape/DVD+pamphlet)	Campaign objective Increase interpersonal discussions and knowledge about the dangers of alcohol use during pregnancy Media channel(s) Videotape/DVD, printed pamphlet (both groups exposed to TV commercial— no details reported)

Table 1.

Open in new tab

Characteristics of included studies

References and study design	Population	Campaign
Campaigns targeting general adult populations
Allamani et al. (2000) Cross-sectional	Campaign location and reach Rifredi Health District (population 16,900), Florence, Italy. 5,000 carousels were disseminated Campaign context A component of a 6-year community alcohol project, which included a school program unit and training for healthcare workers and volunteers. The project had an aim to change local alcohol policy. Local TV and newspapers publicized the ‘carousel’ initiative prior to its implementation Target population Whole community Comparison group None	Campaign objective Increase awareness about responsible consumption of wine and other alcoholic drinks Media channel(s) Posters displayed in buses. ‘Carousel’ information tool (rotatable disk presented in a yellow envelope with ‘Take home a carousel’ printed on the outside) distributed via racks at GPs, pharmacies, schools, shops and bars, sent by mail to homes and distributed at local events
Barber et al. (1989) Cluster non-randomized controlled trial (exposure to pre-campaign letter in both groups was randomized at the individual level, forming a 2 × 2 design)	Campaign location and reach Townsville, North Queensland, Australia. Local reach Target population Adult alcohol drinkers Comparison group Community (Cairns) not exposed to TV advertisement but sent pre-campaign letters	Campaign objective Reduce alcohol consumption Media channel(s) TV advertisement, pre-campaign postal letter
Barber (1990) Uncontrolled before and after study with a separate exposed group measured post-campaign only	Campaign location and reach Australia, national reach Campaign context The beginning of a government 3-year National Campaign Against Drug Abuse Target population The general population Comparison group None.	Campaign objective Educate the public in the responsible use of drugs, with an emphasis on attitudes. Sought to raise public concern about the prevention of drug abuse generally Media channel(s) Radio, television and newspaper advertisements. Printed glossy booklet delivered to homes
Casswell et al. (1990) Cluster non-randomized controlled trial with separate repeated cross-sectional component	Campaign location and reach Four cities in New Zealand (each of 40,000–60,000 population). Local media channels used Target population Initially males 18–30 years, subsequently males 16–20 years. Comparison group Group exposed to mass media campaign plus community action. Control group not exposed to mass media or community action.	Campaign objective Increase awareness and support for relevant public policy on alcohol use. Change attitudes about alcohol use (more moderated drinking patterns and shift to non-alcoholic drinks). Wider community-level objectives included an increasing the amount of alcohol-related material (excluding industry promotion) in the local print media and radio programmes Media channel(s) Television, radio, newspaper, posters, cinema advertisements
Dixon et al. (2015) Interrupted time series	Campaign location and reach Western Australia, state-wide Target population Women aged 25–54 Comparison group None	Campaign objective Increase awareness of the link between alcohol and cancer among women. Specifically, the campaign aimed to increase awareness of long-term risky drinking, particularly in relation to alcohol-caused cancer Media channel(s) TV advertisements supported by print advertisements, community posters, web-based information and unpaid media strategies
Grønbæk et al. (2001) Interrupted time series	Campaign location and reach Denmark, national reach Target population Different target groups in different years e.g. people in their forties, heavy drinkers, whole population Comparison group None	Campaign objective Highlight alcohol consumption in order to promote interest in and understanding of alcohol prevention and treatment. Raise awareness and knowledge among adults of sensible levels of alcohol consumption. Reduce the consumption of alcohol in the whole of society in order to prevent alcohol-related injuries. The long-term objective of the annual campaigns was to bring about a reduction in the consumption of alcohol in Denmark Media channel(s) Television spots, information trailers and advertisements, booklet, newspaper advertisements, direct mail, outdoor media, alcohol unit counter tools
Kaariainen et al. (2008) Cross-sectional	Campaign location and reach Tampere, Finland. All households (200,000 population and 90,000 households) Target population General population Comparison group None	Campaign objective Promote a change in the culture of alcohol consumption and increase open discussion about alcohol Media channel(s) A pamphlet, designed for the campaign, delivered to homes
Karlsson et al. (2005) Cluster quasi-randomized controlled trial	Campaign location and reach Helsinki, Finland. Eight postal areas (86,400 households) Target population Males 30–49 years Comparison group Eight postal areas not receiving the pamphlet (40,900 households)	Campaign objective Support self-control of drinking Media channel(s) Information pamphlet, specially designed and delivered to homes, the size of a CD cover
Plant et al. (1979) Cohort study with independent samples pre- and post-test	Campaign location and reach Scotland, UK. Regional reach Target population Alcoholics and the general public Comparison group None	Campaign objective Persuade alcoholics to seek treatment and educate the public about alcoholism and agencies available to help problem drinkers. The possibility was also envisaged that the campaign might lead to a reduction in alcohol consumption by the general public, at least in the short term, although this was not a primary objective Media channel(s) TV films and newspaper advertisements
Siriwardhana et al. (2013) Cross-sectional for mass media outcomes but study included a cluster-randomized controlled design	Campaign location and reach Sri Lanka, rural village, local reach Target population Adult males Comparison group None for mass media outcomes	Campaign objective Educate the community about low-risk drinking (less than the equivalent of three standard drinks a day). Highlight the benefits of restricting amounts of drinking Media channel(s) Posters, recordings of street dramas distributed on DVD and leaflets delivered to homes
Wallack (1982) Repeated cross-sectional with control group	Campaign location and reach About half of Oakland and the city of San Leandro in Alameda County and the cities of El Cerrito, Richmond and San Pablo in Contra Costa County, California, USA Target population Initially males 18–35 years. Expanded to include females 25–40 years, Spanish heritage people and youth 14–17 years Comparison group City of Stockton in San Joaquin County, California, USA	Campaign objective Reduce the consumption of alcoholic beverages and lower the incidence of alcohol-related problems in the general population. Encourage more responsible drinking practices among current drinkers and thus obviate the need for treatment. Increase awareness and level of information about alcohol. Change attitudes regarding alcohol use Media channel(s) Television, radio, billboard displays, bus cards
Campaigns targeting young people and/or their parents
Atkinson et al. (2011) Qualitative	Campaign location and reach UK. 943,644 views (unclear if all from UK) Target population Young people Comparison group None	Campaign objective Create peer to peer conversations regarding the negative effects of binge drinking. The long-term aim of the campaign was to create behaviour change by delivering sensible drinking messages in a non-patronizing way through the Hollyoaks brand Media channel(s) Online video reinforced and promoted through online discussion boards, character social media pages and blogs/video blogs, interviews with actors and interactive features such as a quiz, which assessed viewers’ recall of storylines, alcohol units and binge drinking knowledge and statistics relating to the negative effects of alcohol consumption
Flynn et al. (2006) Repeated cross-sectional with control group	Campaign location and reach Vermont, USA. Local reach Target population Adolescents in 8 school districts in grades 4–5 at start of intervention and grades 7–8 at end, parents of youth ages 9–13 and retail clerks Comparison group Adolescents in grades 7–8 in the 8 school districts which received no intervention	Campaign objective Reduce demand for alcohol among early adolescents by changing specific mediators of alcohol use and control alcohol supply. Parent objectives were to increase communication and limit alcohol supply. Retailer component focused on reducing access to alcohol by underage customers Media channel(s) Television (youth and parents), radio (parents) and video (retail clerks)
Kelley et al. (2000) Repeated cross-sectional	Campaign location and reach Colorado, New Jersey and Washington, USA. Four rural communities each with populations of <30,000 Target population Adolescent females Comparison group None	Campaign objective Combat alcohol and tobacco use Media channel(s) Broadcast media (radio and TV), print media (newspaper, billboard), posters and tray liners in the school cafeteria and local fast food restaurants
Kypri et al. (2005) Cluster non-randomized controlled trial	Campaign location and reach Two communities in the south island of New Zealand. Districts of Ashburton (population 25,446) and Waitaki (20,088) Target population Parents of adolescents Comparison group Clutha district (population 17,172). All year 11, 12 and 13 students and from all households in the district with a teenager in years 9–13 at either of Clutha district’s secondary schools	Campaign objective (i) Increase the knowledge of adults in the Ashburton and Waitaki districts of the risks of supplying alcohol to teenagers; (ii) encourage a change of attitude such that a teenager’s parent is considered the only appropriate supplier of alcohol, and that teenage drinking should occur only under adult supervision; and (iii) effect a reduction in the percentage of adults who supply alcohol to teenagers for unsupervised consumption Media channel(s) Local newspaper, print media, local radio, media events, billboard advertisements, the distribution of printed material and the presentation of campaign information at point of sale. In two communities, a range of awareness-raising events for youth and adults were held
Scheier (2010) Age-cohort study	Campaign location and reach USA, national campaign Target population Youth 9–18 years and their parents. Other influential adults (e.g. staff at alcohol selling outlets) Comparison group None	Campaign objective Educate and enable America’s youths to reject illegal drugs. Reduce adolescent initiation of drug use. Curtail use among those already engaged Media channel(s) Radio, television, newsprint, magazines, movies, billboards, advertisements on buses, at malls, at sports events
Surkan et al. (2003) Cross-sectional	Campaign location and reach Massachusetts, USA. Radio stations reaching Boston, Worcester, Cape Cod, Franklin County, New Bedford area and Springfield area Target population Parents Comparison group None	Campaign objective Promote parent–child communication about alcohol use Media channel(s) Radio advertisement (paid)
Trees (2015) Cross-sectional and qualitative	Campaign location and reach Broome and surrounding areas, Western Australia. Local reach Target population Indigenous youth in Broome and the wider Kimberley region (the broadcast area of Goolarri TV and Radio) Comparison group None	Campaign objective Alcohol awareness Media channel(s) Television and radio (both local)
van Gemert et al. (2011) Cross-sectional	Campaign location and reach Australia, national reach Target population Young people 15–25 years and their parents Comparison group None	Campaign objective Raise awareness of the harms and costs associated with risky drinking among young Australians, and to deliver personally relevant messages to encourage, motivate and support the primary target groups to modify their behaviour Media channel(s) A range of mass media strategies and outlets including television, cinema, radio, online advertising, brochures and out-of-home print advertisements such as free postcard advertising, washroom mirrors in nightclubs, street posters, stencil chalking and on street furniture
van Leeuwen (2013) Cohort study	Campaign location and reach Netherlands, national reach Target population Less educated adolescents (high school students receiving preparatory middle-level applied education) Comparison group Participants who reported that they had seen one episode or less and did not complete any of the five surveys between pre- and post-test	Campaign objective Favourably influence beliefs about the consequences of substance use, e.g. as being damaging to health, intentions, and behaviour concerning the use of substances Media channel(s) National TV and online viewing via an emailed link
Campaigns targeting pregnant women or women of childbearing age
Awopetu et al. (2008) Historically controlled study	Campaign location and reach Essex and Atlantic Counties, New Jersey, USA. Unknown reach as messages were communicated along major transit routes Target population Women of childbearing age Comparison group None but the authors narratively compared the outcome to that achieved in a historic period	Campaign objective Urge women to not drink alcohol if they are pregnant and to avoid alcohol if they could become pregnant in order to reduce risks Media channel(s) Billboard posters along transit routes, interiors of subway trains and city buses, local newspapers, radio public service announcements, printed materials (countertop inserts and brochures)
Casiro et al. (1994) Interrupted time series	Campaign location and reach Manitoba, Canada. Province-wide campaign Target population General public and all physicians in Manitoba Comparison group None	Campaign objective Increase awareness of the dangers of drinking during pregnancy Media channel(s) TV, brochure
Hanson et al. (2012) Cross-sectional	Campaign location and reach American Indian communities in the Northern Plains, USA Target population General population Comparison group None	Campaign objective Increase awareness of foetal alcohol syndrome disease, the effects of alcohol on the unborn child and reduce alcohol consumption Media channel(s) Posters, radio adverts, newspaper adverts, brochures
Lowe et al. (2010) Cluster quasi-randomized controlled trial	Campaign location and reach Iowa, USA. Ten agencies/sites Target population Pregnant women Comparison group Women in 10 agencies randomized to receive advice and opportunity to watch TV commercial only (not exposed to the videotape/DVD+pamphlet)	Campaign objective Increase interpersonal discussions and knowledge about the dangers of alcohol use during pregnancy Media channel(s) Videotape/DVD, printed pamphlet (both groups exposed to TV commercial— no details reported)

References and study design	Population	Campaign
Campaigns targeting general adult populations
Allamani et al. (2000) Cross-sectional	Campaign location and reach Rifredi Health District (population 16,900), Florence, Italy. 5,000 carousels were disseminated Campaign context A component of a 6-year community alcohol project, which included a school program unit and training for healthcare workers and volunteers. The project had an aim to change local alcohol policy. Local TV and newspapers publicized the ‘carousel’ initiative prior to its implementation Target population Whole community Comparison group None	Campaign objective Increase awareness about responsible consumption of wine and other alcoholic drinks Media channel(s) Posters displayed in buses. ‘Carousel’ information tool (rotatable disk presented in a yellow envelope with ‘Take home a carousel’ printed on the outside) distributed via racks at GPs, pharmacies, schools, shops and bars, sent by mail to homes and distributed at local events
Barber et al. (1989) Cluster non-randomized controlled trial (exposure to pre-campaign letter in both groups was randomized at the individual level, forming a 2 × 2 design)	Campaign location and reach Townsville, North Queensland, Australia. Local reach Target population Adult alcohol drinkers Comparison group Community (Cairns) not exposed to TV advertisement but sent pre-campaign letters	Campaign objective Reduce alcohol consumption Media channel(s) TV advertisement, pre-campaign postal letter
Barber (1990) Uncontrolled before and after study with a separate exposed group measured post-campaign only	Campaign location and reach Australia, national reach Campaign context The beginning of a government 3-year National Campaign Against Drug Abuse Target population The general population Comparison group None.	Campaign objective Educate the public in the responsible use of drugs, with an emphasis on attitudes. Sought to raise public concern about the prevention of drug abuse generally Media channel(s) Radio, television and newspaper advertisements. Printed glossy booklet delivered to homes
Casswell et al. (1990) Cluster non-randomized controlled trial with separate repeated cross-sectional component	Campaign location and reach Four cities in New Zealand (each of 40,000–60,000 population). Local media channels used Target population Initially males 18–30 years, subsequently males 16–20 years. Comparison group Group exposed to mass media campaign plus community action. Control group not exposed to mass media or community action.	Campaign objective Increase awareness and support for relevant public policy on alcohol use. Change attitudes about alcohol use (more moderated drinking patterns and shift to non-alcoholic drinks). Wider community-level objectives included an increasing the amount of alcohol-related material (excluding industry promotion) in the local print media and radio programmes Media channel(s) Television, radio, newspaper, posters, cinema advertisements
Dixon et al. (2015) Interrupted time series	Campaign location and reach Western Australia, state-wide Target population Women aged 25–54 Comparison group None	Campaign objective Increase awareness of the link between alcohol and cancer among women. Specifically, the campaign aimed to increase awareness of long-term risky drinking, particularly in relation to alcohol-caused cancer Media channel(s) TV advertisements supported by print advertisements, community posters, web-based information and unpaid media strategies
Grønbæk et al. (2001) Interrupted time series	Campaign location and reach Denmark, national reach Target population Different target groups in different years e.g. people in their forties, heavy drinkers, whole population Comparison group None	Campaign objective Highlight alcohol consumption in order to promote interest in and understanding of alcohol prevention and treatment. Raise awareness and knowledge among adults of sensible levels of alcohol consumption. Reduce the consumption of alcohol in the whole of society in order to prevent alcohol-related injuries. The long-term objective of the annual campaigns was to bring about a reduction in the consumption of alcohol in Denmark Media channel(s) Television spots, information trailers and advertisements, booklet, newspaper advertisements, direct mail, outdoor media, alcohol unit counter tools
Kaariainen et al. (2008) Cross-sectional	Campaign location and reach Tampere, Finland. All households (200,000 population and 90,000 households) Target population General population Comparison group None	Campaign objective Promote a change in the culture of alcohol consumption and increase open discussion about alcohol Media channel(s) A pamphlet, designed for the campaign, delivered to homes
Karlsson et al. (2005) Cluster quasi-randomized controlled trial	Campaign location and reach Helsinki, Finland. Eight postal areas (86,400 households) Target population Males 30–49 years Comparison group Eight postal areas not receiving the pamphlet (40,900 households)	Campaign objective Support self-control of drinking Media channel(s) Information pamphlet, specially designed and delivered to homes, the size of a CD cover
Plant et al. (1979) Cohort study with independent samples pre- and post-test	Campaign location and reach Scotland, UK. Regional reach Target population Alcoholics and the general public Comparison group None	Campaign objective Persuade alcoholics to seek treatment and educate the public about alcoholism and agencies available to help problem drinkers. The possibility was also envisaged that the campaign might lead to a reduction in alcohol consumption by the general public, at least in the short term, although this was not a primary objective Media channel(s) TV films and newspaper advertisements
Siriwardhana et al. (2013) Cross-sectional for mass media outcomes but study included a cluster-randomized controlled design	Campaign location and reach Sri Lanka, rural village, local reach Target population Adult males Comparison group None for mass media outcomes	Campaign objective Educate the community about low-risk drinking (less than the equivalent of three standard drinks a day). Highlight the benefits of restricting amounts of drinking Media channel(s) Posters, recordings of street dramas distributed on DVD and leaflets delivered to homes
Wallack (1982) Repeated cross-sectional with control group	Campaign location and reach About half of Oakland and the city of San Leandro in Alameda County and the cities of El Cerrito, Richmond and San Pablo in Contra Costa County, California, USA Target population Initially males 18–35 years. Expanded to include females 25–40 years, Spanish heritage people and youth 14–17 years Comparison group City of Stockton in San Joaquin County, California, USA	Campaign objective Reduce the consumption of alcoholic beverages and lower the incidence of alcohol-related problems in the general population. Encourage more responsible drinking practices among current drinkers and thus obviate the need for treatment. Increase awareness and level of information about alcohol. Change attitudes regarding alcohol use Media channel(s) Television, radio, billboard displays, bus cards
Campaigns targeting young people and/or their parents
Atkinson et al. (2011) Qualitative	Campaign location and reach UK. 943,644 views (unclear if all from UK) Target population Young people Comparison group None	Campaign objective Create peer to peer conversations regarding the negative effects of binge drinking. The long-term aim of the campaign was to create behaviour change by delivering sensible drinking messages in a non-patronizing way through the Hollyoaks brand Media channel(s) Online video reinforced and promoted through online discussion boards, character social media pages and blogs/video blogs, interviews with actors and interactive features such as a quiz, which assessed viewers’ recall of storylines, alcohol units and binge drinking knowledge and statistics relating to the negative effects of alcohol consumption
Flynn et al. (2006) Repeated cross-sectional with control group	Campaign location and reach Vermont, USA. Local reach Target population Adolescents in 8 school districts in grades 4–5 at start of intervention and grades 7–8 at end, parents of youth ages 9–13 and retail clerks Comparison group Adolescents in grades 7–8 in the 8 school districts which received no intervention	Campaign objective Reduce demand for alcohol among early adolescents by changing specific mediators of alcohol use and control alcohol supply. Parent objectives were to increase communication and limit alcohol supply. Retailer component focused on reducing access to alcohol by underage customers Media channel(s) Television (youth and parents), radio (parents) and video (retail clerks)
Kelley et al. (2000) Repeated cross-sectional	Campaign location and reach Colorado, New Jersey and Washington, USA. Four rural communities each with populations of <30,000 Target population Adolescent females Comparison group None	Campaign objective Combat alcohol and tobacco use Media channel(s) Broadcast media (radio and TV), print media (newspaper, billboard), posters and tray liners in the school cafeteria and local fast food restaurants
Kypri et al. (2005) Cluster non-randomized controlled trial	Campaign location and reach Two communities in the south island of New Zealand. Districts of Ashburton (population 25,446) and Waitaki (20,088) Target population Parents of adolescents Comparison group Clutha district (population 17,172). All year 11, 12 and 13 students and from all households in the district with a teenager in years 9–13 at either of Clutha district’s secondary schools	Campaign objective (i) Increase the knowledge of adults in the Ashburton and Waitaki districts of the risks of supplying alcohol to teenagers; (ii) encourage a change of attitude such that a teenager’s parent is considered the only appropriate supplier of alcohol, and that teenage drinking should occur only under adult supervision; and (iii) effect a reduction in the percentage of adults who supply alcohol to teenagers for unsupervised consumption Media channel(s) Local newspaper, print media, local radio, media events, billboard advertisements, the distribution of printed material and the presentation of campaign information at point of sale. In two communities, a range of awareness-raising events for youth and adults were held
Scheier (2010) Age-cohort study	Campaign location and reach USA, national campaign Target population Youth 9–18 years and their parents. Other influential adults (e.g. staff at alcohol selling outlets) Comparison group None	Campaign objective Educate and enable America’s youths to reject illegal drugs. Reduce adolescent initiation of drug use. Curtail use among those already engaged Media channel(s) Radio, television, newsprint, magazines, movies, billboards, advertisements on buses, at malls, at sports events
Surkan et al. (2003) Cross-sectional	Campaign location and reach Massachusetts, USA. Radio stations reaching Boston, Worcester, Cape Cod, Franklin County, New Bedford area and Springfield area Target population Parents Comparison group None	Campaign objective Promote parent–child communication about alcohol use Media channel(s) Radio advertisement (paid)
Trees (2015) Cross-sectional and qualitative	Campaign location and reach Broome and surrounding areas, Western Australia. Local reach Target population Indigenous youth in Broome and the wider Kimberley region (the broadcast area of Goolarri TV and Radio) Comparison group None	Campaign objective Alcohol awareness Media channel(s) Television and radio (both local)
van Gemert et al. (2011) Cross-sectional	Campaign location and reach Australia, national reach Target population Young people 15–25 years and their parents Comparison group None	Campaign objective Raise awareness of the harms and costs associated with risky drinking among young Australians, and to deliver personally relevant messages to encourage, motivate and support the primary target groups to modify their behaviour Media channel(s) A range of mass media strategies and outlets including television, cinema, radio, online advertising, brochures and out-of-home print advertisements such as free postcard advertising, washroom mirrors in nightclubs, street posters, stencil chalking and on street furniture
van Leeuwen (2013) Cohort study	Campaign location and reach Netherlands, national reach Target population Less educated adolescents (high school students receiving preparatory middle-level applied education) Comparison group Participants who reported that they had seen one episode or less and did not complete any of the five surveys between pre- and post-test	Campaign objective Favourably influence beliefs about the consequences of substance use, e.g. as being damaging to health, intentions, and behaviour concerning the use of substances Media channel(s) National TV and online viewing via an emailed link
Campaigns targeting pregnant women or women of childbearing age
Awopetu et al. (2008) Historically controlled study	Campaign location and reach Essex and Atlantic Counties, New Jersey, USA. Unknown reach as messages were communicated along major transit routes Target population Women of childbearing age Comparison group None but the authors narratively compared the outcome to that achieved in a historic period	Campaign objective Urge women to not drink alcohol if they are pregnant and to avoid alcohol if they could become pregnant in order to reduce risks Media channel(s) Billboard posters along transit routes, interiors of subway trains and city buses, local newspapers, radio public service announcements, printed materials (countertop inserts and brochures)
Casiro et al. (1994) Interrupted time series	Campaign location and reach Manitoba, Canada. Province-wide campaign Target population General public and all physicians in Manitoba Comparison group None	Campaign objective Increase awareness of the dangers of drinking during pregnancy Media channel(s) TV, brochure
Hanson et al. (2012) Cross-sectional	Campaign location and reach American Indian communities in the Northern Plains, USA Target population General population Comparison group None	Campaign objective Increase awareness of foetal alcohol syndrome disease, the effects of alcohol on the unborn child and reduce alcohol consumption Media channel(s) Posters, radio adverts, newspaper adverts, brochures
Lowe et al. (2010) Cluster quasi-randomized controlled trial	Campaign location and reach Iowa, USA. Ten agencies/sites Target population Pregnant women Comparison group Women in 10 agencies randomized to receive advice and opportunity to watch TV commercial only (not exposed to the videotape/DVD+pamphlet)	Campaign objective Increase interpersonal discussions and knowledge about the dangers of alcohol use during pregnancy Media channel(s) Videotape/DVD, printed pamphlet (both groups exposed to TV commercial— no details reported)

This Feature Is Available To Subscribers Only