Meta-analysis of Face Perception in Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorders: Evidence for Differential Impairment in Emotion Face Perception

Descriptive details of included articles and their moderator variables

Article	Task Type Effect Size Count					SSD sample	IQ matching	Memory-dependant non-emotion task used?	Close-to-ceiling task used?
Article	Emotion	Identity	Gender	Age	Other	SSD sample	IQ matching	Memory-dependant non-emotion task used?	Close-to-ceiling task used?
Addington & Addington, 1998	2	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	No	Both types	No
Andric et al., 2016	1	1	0	0	0	Other	No	No	No
Archer et al., 1992	1	2	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	Both types	Yes (Emotion, Identity)
Barkhof et al., 2015	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	Yes	Yes	Yes (Emotion, Identity)
Baudouin et al., 2002	3	3	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	No	Yes	Yes (Emotion, Identity)
Bediou et al., 2005	1	0	1	0	0	Schizophrenia	No	No	No
Bediou et al., 2007	1	0	1	0	0	Schizophrenia	No	No	No
Belge et al., 2017	1	0	1	1	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	Yes (Age, Emotion, Gender, Other)
Bellack et al., 1996	2	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	Yes	No	No
Bigelow et al., 2006	1	0	1	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder, Brief Psychotic Disorder	No	No	Yes (Emotion, Gender)
Borod et al., 1993	2	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	No	No	Yes (Emotion, Identity)
Caldiroli et al., 2018	1	1	0	0	1	Schizophrenia	No	No	No
Calkins et al., 2010	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	No	Yes	No
Campanella et al., 2006	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	No	Yes	Yes (Emotion, Identity)
Chen et al., 2012	4	2	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	Yes	Yes	No
de Achaval, 2010	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	No	No	Yes (Emotion, Identity)
Derntl et al., 2009	1	0	0	1	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Dickey et al., 2011	1	0	1	0	0	Schizotypal Personality Disorder	Yes	No	Yes (Emotion, Gender)
Doop & Park, 2009	1	0	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	Yes	No	Yes (Other)
Drusch et al., 2013	1	0	0	1	0	Schizophrenia	No	No	No
Drusch et al., 2014	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	No	No	No
Edwards et al., 2001	4	2	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder, Schizophreniform Disorder, Other	Partial	No	Yes (Identity)
Erol et al., 2013	2	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder, Schizophreniform Disorder, Other	Yes	No	No
Evangeli & Broks, 2000	1	4	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	Both types	Yes (Identity, Other)
Exner et al., 2004	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Fakra et al., 2015	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Feinberg et al., 1986	2	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Frommann et al., 2013	1	1	0	0	1	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Gee et al., 2012	2	0	2	0	0	Substance Induced Psychosis	No	No	Yes (Emotion, Gender)
Germine & Hooker, 2011	2	1	1	0	0	High Schizotypy	No	No	No
Gessler et al., 1989	3	0	0	3	0	Schizophrenia	No	No	No
Goghari et al., 2011	2	0	0	2	0	Schizophrenia	No	No	No
Goghari et al., 2017	1	0	0	1	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	Yes	No	No
Goghari, & Sponheim, 2013	1	0	0	1	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Goldenberg et al., 2012	2	4	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Ultra/clinical high risk of psychosis	Yes	Yes	No
Gur et al., 2002	1	0	0	1	0	Schizophrenia	No	No	No
Habel et al., 2000	3	0	0	3	0	Schizophrenia	Partial	No	Yes (Age, Emotion)
Habel et al., 2006	1	0	0	1	1	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder, High Schizotypy, Other	Yes	No	No
Habel, Chechko et al., 2010	2	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Habel, Koch et al., 2010	1	0	0	1	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	Yes (Emotion)
Hall et al., 2004	2	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	Yes (Emotion)
Hall et al., 2008	1	0	1	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	Yes (Emotion, Gender)
Heimberg et al., 1992	2	0	0	1	0	Schizophrenia	No	No	Yes (Emotion)
Hooker & Park 2002	1	2	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	Both types	Yes (Identity)
Horan et al., 2003	2	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Johnston et al., 2010	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	Yes	No	Yes (Emotion, Identity)
Kerr & Neale, 1993	2	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Kosmidis et al., 2007	2	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Kucharska-Pietura et al., 2005	2	2	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	No	No	No
Kucharska-Pietura, Mortimer et al., 2012	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	No	No	Yes (Identity)
Kucharska-Pietura, Tylec et al., 2012	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	No	Yes	No
Kuo et al., 2018	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	No	Yes	No
Lee et al., 2020	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	No	Yes	No
Li et al., 2010	4	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	Yes (Identity)
Linden et al., 2010	1	3	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	No	Yes	No
Maat et al., 2020	1	1	0	0	0	Other	No	No	Yes (Emotion, Identity)
Mamah et al., 2021	2	1	0	0	0	Ultra/clinical high risk of psychosis	Yes	Yes	No
Martin et al., 2005	2	2	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	No	Yes	Yes (Emotion, Identity)
Martinez-Dominguez et al., 2015	1	2	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	Yes	No
Meijer et al., 2012	4	4	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder, Schizophreniform Disorder, Brief Psychotic Disorder, Other	No	No	No
Mier et al., 2010	1	0	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Mier et al., 2017	1	0	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Modinos et al., 2020	1	1	0	0	0	Ultra/clinical high risk of psychosis	No	No	No
Mueser et al., 1996	2	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	No	No	No
Novic et al., 1984	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Okada et al., 2015	2	2	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	No	No	No
Penn et al., 2000	4	2	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	No	No	Yes (Emotion)
Pinkham et al., 2008	1	2	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	Yes	No
Pinkham et al., 2019	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	No	No	No
Pomarol-Clotet et al., 2010	1	3	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	Both types	No
Poreh et al., 1994	1	1	0	0	0	High Schizotypy	Yes	Yes	Yes (Emotion, Identity)
Priyesh et al., 2021	2	0	1	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	Yes (Emotion)
Punchaichira et al., 2023	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	No	Yes	No
Quintana et al., 2011	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	Yes (Emotion, Identity)
Ramos-Loyo et al., 2009	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	No	Yes	Yes (Identity)
Ramos-Loyo et al., 2012	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	Yes	Yes (Identity)
Randers et al., 2020	1	1	0	0	0	Schizotypal Personality Disorder, Ultra/clinical high risk of psychosis	Yes	No	No
Rocca et al., 2009	5	1	0	0	0	Schizotypal Personality Disorder, Ultra/clinical high risk of psychosis	No	No	Yes (Emotion, Identity)
Sachse et al., 2014	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Salem et al., 1996	2	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Schneider et al., 1998	1	0	0	1	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	Yes (Age, Emotion)
Schneider et al., 2006	1	1	0	1	0	Schizophrenia	No	Both types	No
Schwartz et al., 2002	1	3	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	Partial	Yes	Yes (Identity)
She et al., 2017	2	2	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	Yes (Emotion)
Silver et al., 2003	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	No	Yes	No
Silver et al., 2005	2	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	Yes	Yes	No
Silver et al., 2009	3	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	No	Yes	No
Soria Bauser et al., 2012	3	3	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	No	Both types	Yes (Emotion, Identity)
Spilka & Goghari, 2017	1	0	0	1	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	Yes	No	No
Tripoli et al., 2022	1	1	0	0	0	First Episode Psychosis	No	No	No
Tylec et al., 2017	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	No	Yes	Yes (Identity)
van Rijn et al., 2011	1	1	0	0	0	Ultra/clinical high risk of psychosis	Yes	No	Yes (Identity)
van 't Wout et al., 2007	1	1	1	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder, Schizophreniform Disorder	Yes	No	Yes (Emotion, Gender)
Villalta-Gil et al., 2013	2	1	1	0	0	Other	No	No	Yes (Emotion, Identity, Gender)
Walker, 1984	3	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Watanuki et al., 2016	1	0	1	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	Yes (Emotion, Gender)
Whittaker et al., 2001	2	4	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	Both types	Yes (Emotion, Identity)
Wickline et al., 2012	1	1	0	0	0	Schizotypal Personality Disorder	Yes	No	No
Williams et al., 2007	2	1	0	0	0	High Schizotypy	No	No	No
Wynn et al., 2008	1	0	1	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	Yes (Emotion, Gender)
Wynn et al., 2013	1	0	1	0	0	Schizophrenia	No	No	Yes (Emotion, Gender)
Wynn et al., 2023	3	0	3	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder, Schizophreniform Disorder, Delusion Disorder, Psychotic Disorder Not Otherwise Specified	Partial	No	Yes (Emotion, Gender)
Yagci et al., 2023	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Yamada et al., 2009	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No

Article	Task Type Effect Size Count					SSD sample	IQ matching	Memory-dependant non-emotion task used?	Close-to-ceiling task used?
Article	Emotion	Identity	Gender	Age	Other	SSD sample	IQ matching	Memory-dependant non-emotion task used?	Close-to-ceiling task used?
Addington & Addington, 1998	2	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	No	Both types	No
Andric et al., 2016	1	1	0	0	0	Other	No	No	No
Archer et al., 1992	1	2	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	Both types	Yes (Emotion, Identity)
Barkhof et al., 2015	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	Yes	Yes	Yes (Emotion, Identity)
Baudouin et al., 2002	3	3	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	No	Yes	Yes (Emotion, Identity)
Bediou et al., 2005	1	0	1	0	0	Schizophrenia	No	No	No
Bediou et al., 2007	1	0	1	0	0	Schizophrenia	No	No	No
Belge et al., 2017	1	0	1	1	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	Yes (Age, Emotion, Gender, Other)
Bellack et al., 1996	2	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	Yes	No	No
Bigelow et al., 2006	1	0	1	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder, Brief Psychotic Disorder	No	No	Yes (Emotion, Gender)
Borod et al., 1993	2	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	No	No	Yes (Emotion, Identity)
Caldiroli et al., 2018	1	1	0	0	1	Schizophrenia	No	No	No
Calkins et al., 2010	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	No	Yes	No
Campanella et al., 2006	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	No	Yes	Yes (Emotion, Identity)
Chen et al., 2012	4	2	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	Yes	Yes	No
de Achaval, 2010	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	No	No	Yes (Emotion, Identity)
Derntl et al., 2009	1	0	0	1	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Dickey et al., 2011	1	0	1	0	0	Schizotypal Personality Disorder	Yes	No	Yes (Emotion, Gender)
Doop & Park, 2009	1	0	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	Yes	No	Yes (Other)
Drusch et al., 2013	1	0	0	1	0	Schizophrenia	No	No	No
Drusch et al., 2014	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	No	No	No
Edwards et al., 2001	4	2	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder, Schizophreniform Disorder, Other	Partial	No	Yes (Identity)
Erol et al., 2013	2	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder, Schizophreniform Disorder, Other	Yes	No	No
Evangeli & Broks, 2000	1	4	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	Both types	Yes (Identity, Other)
Exner et al., 2004	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Fakra et al., 2015	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Feinberg et al., 1986	2	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Frommann et al., 2013	1	1	0	0	1	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Gee et al., 2012	2	0	2	0	0	Substance Induced Psychosis	No	No	Yes (Emotion, Gender)
Germine & Hooker, 2011	2	1	1	0	0	High Schizotypy	No	No	No
Gessler et al., 1989	3	0	0	3	0	Schizophrenia	No	No	No
Goghari et al., 2011	2	0	0	2	0	Schizophrenia	No	No	No
Goghari et al., 2017	1	0	0	1	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	Yes	No	No
Goghari, & Sponheim, 2013	1	0	0	1	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Goldenberg et al., 2012	2	4	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Ultra/clinical high risk of psychosis	Yes	Yes	No
Gur et al., 2002	1	0	0	1	0	Schizophrenia	No	No	No
Habel et al., 2000	3	0	0	3	0	Schizophrenia	Partial	No	Yes (Age, Emotion)
Habel et al., 2006	1	0	0	1	1	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder, High Schizotypy, Other	Yes	No	No
Habel, Chechko et al., 2010	2	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Habel, Koch et al., 2010	1	0	0	1	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	Yes (Emotion)
Hall et al., 2004	2	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	Yes (Emotion)
Hall et al., 2008	1	0	1	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	Yes (Emotion, Gender)
Heimberg et al., 1992	2	0	0	1	0	Schizophrenia	No	No	Yes (Emotion)
Hooker & Park 2002	1	2	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	Both types	Yes (Identity)
Horan et al., 2003	2	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Johnston et al., 2010	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	Yes	No	Yes (Emotion, Identity)
Kerr & Neale, 1993	2	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Kosmidis et al., 2007	2	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Kucharska-Pietura et al., 2005	2	2	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	No	No	No
Kucharska-Pietura, Mortimer et al., 2012	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	No	No	Yes (Identity)
Kucharska-Pietura, Tylec et al., 2012	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	No	Yes	No
Kuo et al., 2018	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	No	Yes	No
Lee et al., 2020	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	No	Yes	No
Li et al., 2010	4	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	Yes (Identity)
Linden et al., 2010	1	3	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	No	Yes	No
Maat et al., 2020	1	1	0	0	0	Other	No	No	Yes (Emotion, Identity)
Mamah et al., 2021	2	1	0	0	0	Ultra/clinical high risk of psychosis	Yes	Yes	No
Martin et al., 2005	2	2	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	No	Yes	Yes (Emotion, Identity)
Martinez-Dominguez et al., 2015	1	2	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	Yes	No
Meijer et al., 2012	4	4	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder, Schizophreniform Disorder, Brief Psychotic Disorder, Other	No	No	No
Mier et al., 2010	1	0	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Mier et al., 2017	1	0	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Modinos et al., 2020	1	1	0	0	0	Ultra/clinical high risk of psychosis	No	No	No
Mueser et al., 1996	2	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	No	No	No
Novic et al., 1984	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Okada et al., 2015	2	2	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	No	No	No
Penn et al., 2000	4	2	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	No	No	Yes (Emotion)
Pinkham et al., 2008	1	2	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	Yes	No
Pinkham et al., 2019	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	No	No	No
Pomarol-Clotet et al., 2010	1	3	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	Both types	No
Poreh et al., 1994	1	1	0	0	0	High Schizotypy	Yes	Yes	Yes (Emotion, Identity)
Priyesh et al., 2021	2	0	1	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	Yes (Emotion)
Punchaichira et al., 2023	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	No	Yes	No
Quintana et al., 2011	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	Yes (Emotion, Identity)
Ramos-Loyo et al., 2009	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	No	Yes	Yes (Identity)
Ramos-Loyo et al., 2012	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	Yes	Yes (Identity)
Randers et al., 2020	1	1	0	0	0	Schizotypal Personality Disorder, Ultra/clinical high risk of psychosis	Yes	No	No
Rocca et al., 2009	5	1	0	0	0	Schizotypal Personality Disorder, Ultra/clinical high risk of psychosis	No	No	Yes (Emotion, Identity)
Sachse et al., 2014	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Salem et al., 1996	2	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Schneider et al., 1998	1	0	0	1	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	Yes (Age, Emotion)
Schneider et al., 2006	1	1	0	1	0	Schizophrenia	No	Both types	No
Schwartz et al., 2002	1	3	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	Partial	Yes	Yes (Identity)
She et al., 2017	2	2	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	Yes (Emotion)
Silver et al., 2003	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	No	Yes	No
Silver et al., 2005	2	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	Yes	Yes	No
Silver et al., 2009	3	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	No	Yes	No
Soria Bauser et al., 2012	3	3	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	No	Both types	Yes (Emotion, Identity)
Spilka & Goghari, 2017	1	0	0	1	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	Yes	No	No
Tripoli et al., 2022	1	1	0	0	0	First Episode Psychosis	No	No	No
Tylec et al., 2017	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	No	Yes	Yes (Identity)
van Rijn et al., 2011	1	1	0	0	0	Ultra/clinical high risk of psychosis	Yes	No	Yes (Identity)
van 't Wout et al., 2007	1	1	1	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder, Schizophreniform Disorder	Yes	No	Yes (Emotion, Gender)
Villalta-Gil et al., 2013	2	1	1	0	0	Other	No	No	Yes (Emotion, Identity, Gender)
Walker, 1984	3	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Watanuki et al., 2016	1	0	1	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	Yes (Emotion, Gender)
Whittaker et al., 2001	2	4	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	Both types	Yes (Emotion, Identity)
Wickline et al., 2012	1	1	0	0	0	Schizotypal Personality Disorder	Yes	No	No
Williams et al., 2007	2	1	0	0	0	High Schizotypy	No	No	No
Wynn et al., 2008	1	0	1	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	Yes (Emotion, Gender)
Wynn et al., 2013	1	0	1	0	0	Schizophrenia	No	No	Yes (Emotion, Gender)
Wynn et al., 2023	3	0	3	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder, Schizophreniform Disorder, Delusion Disorder, Psychotic Disorder Not Otherwise Specified	Partial	No	Yes (Emotion, Gender)
Yagci et al., 2023	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Yamada et al., 2009	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No

Note. The Task Type Effect Size Count columns count the number of effect sizes for each task type, which may include different tasks, different samples completing each task, or a combination of the two. The IQ Matching column is labelled as “Partial” if some samples were matched for intelligence and others were not. If a close-to-ceiling task was used, the task type is listed in parentheses.

Table 1.

Descriptive details of included articles and their moderator variables

Article	Task Type Effect Size Count					SSD sample	IQ matching	Memory-dependant non-emotion task used?	Close-to-ceiling task used?
Article	Emotion	Identity	Gender	Age	Other	SSD sample	IQ matching	Memory-dependant non-emotion task used?	Close-to-ceiling task used?
Addington & Addington, 1998	2	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	No	Both types	No
Andric et al., 2016	1	1	0	0	0	Other	No	No	No
Archer et al., 1992	1	2	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	Both types	Yes (Emotion, Identity)
Barkhof et al., 2015	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	Yes	Yes	Yes (Emotion, Identity)
Baudouin et al., 2002	3	3	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	No	Yes	Yes (Emotion, Identity)
Bediou et al., 2005	1	0	1	0	0	Schizophrenia	No	No	No
Bediou et al., 2007	1	0	1	0	0	Schizophrenia	No	No	No
Belge et al., 2017	1	0	1	1	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	Yes (Age, Emotion, Gender, Other)
Bellack et al., 1996	2	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	Yes	No	No
Bigelow et al., 2006	1	0	1	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder, Brief Psychotic Disorder	No	No	Yes (Emotion, Gender)
Borod et al., 1993	2	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	No	No	Yes (Emotion, Identity)
Caldiroli et al., 2018	1	1	0	0	1	Schizophrenia	No	No	No
Calkins et al., 2010	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	No	Yes	No
Campanella et al., 2006	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	No	Yes	Yes (Emotion, Identity)
Chen et al., 2012	4	2	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	Yes	Yes	No
de Achaval, 2010	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	No	No	Yes (Emotion, Identity)
Derntl et al., 2009	1	0	0	1	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Dickey et al., 2011	1	0	1	0	0	Schizotypal Personality Disorder	Yes	No	Yes (Emotion, Gender)
Doop & Park, 2009	1	0	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	Yes	No	Yes (Other)
Drusch et al., 2013	1	0	0	1	0	Schizophrenia	No	No	No
Drusch et al., 2014	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	No	No	No
Edwards et al., 2001	4	2	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder, Schizophreniform Disorder, Other	Partial	No	Yes (Identity)
Erol et al., 2013	2	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder, Schizophreniform Disorder, Other	Yes	No	No
Evangeli & Broks, 2000	1	4	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	Both types	Yes (Identity, Other)
Exner et al., 2004	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Fakra et al., 2015	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Feinberg et al., 1986	2	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Frommann et al., 2013	1	1	0	0	1	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Gee et al., 2012	2	0	2	0	0	Substance Induced Psychosis	No	No	Yes (Emotion, Gender)
Germine & Hooker, 2011	2	1	1	0	0	High Schizotypy	No	No	No
Gessler et al., 1989	3	0	0	3	0	Schizophrenia	No	No	No
Goghari et al., 2011	2	0	0	2	0	Schizophrenia	No	No	No
Goghari et al., 2017	1	0	0	1	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	Yes	No	No
Goghari, & Sponheim, 2013	1	0	0	1	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Goldenberg et al., 2012	2	4	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Ultra/clinical high risk of psychosis	Yes	Yes	No
Gur et al., 2002	1	0	0	1	0	Schizophrenia	No	No	No
Habel et al., 2000	3	0	0	3	0	Schizophrenia	Partial	No	Yes (Age, Emotion)
Habel et al., 2006	1	0	0	1	1	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder, High Schizotypy, Other	Yes	No	No
Habel, Chechko et al., 2010	2	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Habel, Koch et al., 2010	1	0	0	1	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	Yes (Emotion)
Hall et al., 2004	2	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	Yes (Emotion)
Hall et al., 2008	1	0	1	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	Yes (Emotion, Gender)
Heimberg et al., 1992	2	0	0	1	0	Schizophrenia	No	No	Yes (Emotion)
Hooker & Park 2002	1	2	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	Both types	Yes (Identity)
Horan et al., 2003	2	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Johnston et al., 2010	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	Yes	No	Yes (Emotion, Identity)
Kerr & Neale, 1993	2	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Kosmidis et al., 2007	2	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Kucharska-Pietura et al., 2005	2	2	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	No	No	No
Kucharska-Pietura, Mortimer et al., 2012	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	No	No	Yes (Identity)
Kucharska-Pietura, Tylec et al., 2012	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	No	Yes	No
Kuo et al., 2018	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	No	Yes	No
Lee et al., 2020	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	No	Yes	No
Li et al., 2010	4	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	Yes (Identity)
Linden et al., 2010	1	3	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	No	Yes	No
Maat et al., 2020	1	1	0	0	0	Other	No	No	Yes (Emotion, Identity)
Mamah et al., 2021	2	1	0	0	0	Ultra/clinical high risk of psychosis	Yes	Yes	No
Martin et al., 2005	2	2	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	No	Yes	Yes (Emotion, Identity)
Martinez-Dominguez et al., 2015	1	2	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	Yes	No
Meijer et al., 2012	4	4	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder, Schizophreniform Disorder, Brief Psychotic Disorder, Other	No	No	No
Mier et al., 2010	1	0	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Mier et al., 2017	1	0	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Modinos et al., 2020	1	1	0	0	0	Ultra/clinical high risk of psychosis	No	No	No
Mueser et al., 1996	2	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	No	No	No
Novic et al., 1984	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Okada et al., 2015	2	2	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	No	No	No
Penn et al., 2000	4	2	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	No	No	Yes (Emotion)
Pinkham et al., 2008	1	2	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	Yes	No
Pinkham et al., 2019	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	No	No	No
Pomarol-Clotet et al., 2010	1	3	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	Both types	No
Poreh et al., 1994	1	1	0	0	0	High Schizotypy	Yes	Yes	Yes (Emotion, Identity)
Priyesh et al., 2021	2	0	1	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	Yes (Emotion)
Punchaichira et al., 2023	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	No	Yes	No
Quintana et al., 2011	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	Yes (Emotion, Identity)
Ramos-Loyo et al., 2009	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	No	Yes	Yes (Identity)
Ramos-Loyo et al., 2012	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	Yes	Yes (Identity)
Randers et al., 2020	1	1	0	0	0	Schizotypal Personality Disorder, Ultra/clinical high risk of psychosis	Yes	No	No
Rocca et al., 2009	5	1	0	0	0	Schizotypal Personality Disorder, Ultra/clinical high risk of psychosis	No	No	Yes (Emotion, Identity)
Sachse et al., 2014	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Salem et al., 1996	2	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Schneider et al., 1998	1	0	0	1	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	Yes (Age, Emotion)
Schneider et al., 2006	1	1	0	1	0	Schizophrenia	No	Both types	No
Schwartz et al., 2002	1	3	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	Partial	Yes	Yes (Identity)
She et al., 2017	2	2	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	Yes (Emotion)
Silver et al., 2003	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	No	Yes	No
Silver et al., 2005	2	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	Yes	Yes	No
Silver et al., 2009	3	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	No	Yes	No
Soria Bauser et al., 2012	3	3	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	No	Both types	Yes (Emotion, Identity)
Spilka & Goghari, 2017	1	0	0	1	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	Yes	No	No
Tripoli et al., 2022	1	1	0	0	0	First Episode Psychosis	No	No	No
Tylec et al., 2017	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	No	Yes	Yes (Identity)
van Rijn et al., 2011	1	1	0	0	0	Ultra/clinical high risk of psychosis	Yes	No	Yes (Identity)
van 't Wout et al., 2007	1	1	1	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder, Schizophreniform Disorder	Yes	No	Yes (Emotion, Gender)
Villalta-Gil et al., 2013	2	1	1	0	0	Other	No	No	Yes (Emotion, Identity, Gender)
Walker, 1984	3	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Watanuki et al., 2016	1	0	1	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	Yes (Emotion, Gender)
Whittaker et al., 2001	2	4	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	Both types	Yes (Emotion, Identity)
Wickline et al., 2012	1	1	0	0	0	Schizotypal Personality Disorder	Yes	No	No
Williams et al., 2007	2	1	0	0	0	High Schizotypy	No	No	No
Wynn et al., 2008	1	0	1	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	Yes (Emotion, Gender)
Wynn et al., 2013	1	0	1	0	0	Schizophrenia	No	No	Yes (Emotion, Gender)
Wynn et al., 2023	3	0	3	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder, Schizophreniform Disorder, Delusion Disorder, Psychotic Disorder Not Otherwise Specified	Partial	No	Yes (Emotion, Gender)
Yagci et al., 2023	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Yamada et al., 2009	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No

Article	Task Type Effect Size Count					SSD sample	IQ matching	Memory-dependant non-emotion task used?	Close-to-ceiling task used?
Article	Emotion	Identity	Gender	Age	Other	SSD sample	IQ matching	Memory-dependant non-emotion task used?	Close-to-ceiling task used?
Addington & Addington, 1998	2	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	No	Both types	No
Andric et al., 2016	1	1	0	0	0	Other	No	No	No
Archer et al., 1992	1	2	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	Both types	Yes (Emotion, Identity)
Barkhof et al., 2015	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	Yes	Yes	Yes (Emotion, Identity)
Baudouin et al., 2002	3	3	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	No	Yes	Yes (Emotion, Identity)
Bediou et al., 2005	1	0	1	0	0	Schizophrenia	No	No	No
Bediou et al., 2007	1	0	1	0	0	Schizophrenia	No	No	No
Belge et al., 2017	1	0	1	1	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	Yes (Age, Emotion, Gender, Other)
Bellack et al., 1996	2	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	Yes	No	No
Bigelow et al., 2006	1	0	1	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder, Brief Psychotic Disorder	No	No	Yes (Emotion, Gender)
Borod et al., 1993	2	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	No	No	Yes (Emotion, Identity)
Caldiroli et al., 2018	1	1	0	0	1	Schizophrenia	No	No	No
Calkins et al., 2010	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	No	Yes	No
Campanella et al., 2006	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	No	Yes	Yes (Emotion, Identity)
Chen et al., 2012	4	2	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	Yes	Yes	No
de Achaval, 2010	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	No	No	Yes (Emotion, Identity)
Derntl et al., 2009	1	0	0	1	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Dickey et al., 2011	1	0	1	0	0	Schizotypal Personality Disorder	Yes	No	Yes (Emotion, Gender)
Doop & Park, 2009	1	0	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	Yes	No	Yes (Other)
Drusch et al., 2013	1	0	0	1	0	Schizophrenia	No	No	No
Drusch et al., 2014	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	No	No	No
Edwards et al., 2001	4	2	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder, Schizophreniform Disorder, Other	Partial	No	Yes (Identity)
Erol et al., 2013	2	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder, Schizophreniform Disorder, Other	Yes	No	No
Evangeli & Broks, 2000	1	4	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	Both types	Yes (Identity, Other)
Exner et al., 2004	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Fakra et al., 2015	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Feinberg et al., 1986	2	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Frommann et al., 2013	1	1	0	0	1	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Gee et al., 2012	2	0	2	0	0	Substance Induced Psychosis	No	No	Yes (Emotion, Gender)
Germine & Hooker, 2011	2	1	1	0	0	High Schizotypy	No	No	No
Gessler et al., 1989	3	0	0	3	0	Schizophrenia	No	No	No
Goghari et al., 2011	2	0	0	2	0	Schizophrenia	No	No	No
Goghari et al., 2017	1	0	0	1	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	Yes	No	No
Goghari, & Sponheim, 2013	1	0	0	1	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Goldenberg et al., 2012	2	4	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Ultra/clinical high risk of psychosis	Yes	Yes	No
Gur et al., 2002	1	0	0	1	0	Schizophrenia	No	No	No
Habel et al., 2000	3	0	0	3	0	Schizophrenia	Partial	No	Yes (Age, Emotion)
Habel et al., 2006	1	0	0	1	1	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder, High Schizotypy, Other	Yes	No	No
Habel, Chechko et al., 2010	2	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Habel, Koch et al., 2010	1	0	0	1	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	Yes (Emotion)
Hall et al., 2004	2	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	Yes (Emotion)
Hall et al., 2008	1	0	1	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	Yes (Emotion, Gender)
Heimberg et al., 1992	2	0	0	1	0	Schizophrenia	No	No	Yes (Emotion)
Hooker & Park 2002	1	2	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	Both types	Yes (Identity)
Horan et al., 2003	2	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Johnston et al., 2010	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	Yes	No	Yes (Emotion, Identity)
Kerr & Neale, 1993	2	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Kosmidis et al., 2007	2	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Kucharska-Pietura et al., 2005	2	2	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	No	No	No
Kucharska-Pietura, Mortimer et al., 2012	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	No	No	Yes (Identity)
Kucharska-Pietura, Tylec et al., 2012	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	No	Yes	No
Kuo et al., 2018	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	No	Yes	No
Lee et al., 2020	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	No	Yes	No
Li et al., 2010	4	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	Yes (Identity)
Linden et al., 2010	1	3	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	No	Yes	No
Maat et al., 2020	1	1	0	0	0	Other	No	No	Yes (Emotion, Identity)
Mamah et al., 2021	2	1	0	0	0	Ultra/clinical high risk of psychosis	Yes	Yes	No
Martin et al., 2005	2	2	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	No	Yes	Yes (Emotion, Identity)
Martinez-Dominguez et al., 2015	1	2	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	Yes	No
Meijer et al., 2012	4	4	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder, Schizophreniform Disorder, Brief Psychotic Disorder, Other	No	No	No
Mier et al., 2010	1	0	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Mier et al., 2017	1	0	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Modinos et al., 2020	1	1	0	0	0	Ultra/clinical high risk of psychosis	No	No	No
Mueser et al., 1996	2	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	No	No	No
Novic et al., 1984	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Okada et al., 2015	2	2	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	No	No	No
Penn et al., 2000	4	2	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	No	No	Yes (Emotion)
Pinkham et al., 2008	1	2	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	Yes	No
Pinkham et al., 2019	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	No	No	No
Pomarol-Clotet et al., 2010	1	3	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	Both types	No
Poreh et al., 1994	1	1	0	0	0	High Schizotypy	Yes	Yes	Yes (Emotion, Identity)
Priyesh et al., 2021	2	0	1	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	Yes (Emotion)
Punchaichira et al., 2023	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	No	Yes	No
Quintana et al., 2011	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	Yes (Emotion, Identity)
Ramos-Loyo et al., 2009	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	No	Yes	Yes (Identity)
Ramos-Loyo et al., 2012	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	Yes	Yes (Identity)
Randers et al., 2020	1	1	0	0	0	Schizotypal Personality Disorder, Ultra/clinical high risk of psychosis	Yes	No	No
Rocca et al., 2009	5	1	0	0	0	Schizotypal Personality Disorder, Ultra/clinical high risk of psychosis	No	No	Yes (Emotion, Identity)
Sachse et al., 2014	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Salem et al., 1996	2	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Schneider et al., 1998	1	0	0	1	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	Yes (Age, Emotion)
Schneider et al., 2006	1	1	0	1	0	Schizophrenia	No	Both types	No
Schwartz et al., 2002	1	3	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	Partial	Yes	Yes (Identity)
She et al., 2017	2	2	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	Yes (Emotion)
Silver et al., 2003	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	No	Yes	No
Silver et al., 2005	2	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	Yes	Yes	No
Silver et al., 2009	3	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	No	Yes	No
Soria Bauser et al., 2012	3	3	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	No	Both types	Yes (Emotion, Identity)
Spilka & Goghari, 2017	1	0	0	1	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	Yes	No	No
Tripoli et al., 2022	1	1	0	0	0	First Episode Psychosis	No	No	No
Tylec et al., 2017	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder	No	Yes	Yes (Identity)
van Rijn et al., 2011	1	1	0	0	0	Ultra/clinical high risk of psychosis	Yes	No	Yes (Identity)
van 't Wout et al., 2007	1	1	1	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder, Schizophreniform Disorder	Yes	No	Yes (Emotion, Gender)
Villalta-Gil et al., 2013	2	1	1	0	0	Other	No	No	Yes (Emotion, Identity, Gender)
Walker, 1984	3	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Watanuki et al., 2016	1	0	1	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	Yes (Emotion, Gender)
Whittaker et al., 2001	2	4	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	Both types	Yes (Emotion, Identity)
Wickline et al., 2012	1	1	0	0	0	Schizotypal Personality Disorder	Yes	No	No
Williams et al., 2007	2	1	0	0	0	High Schizotypy	No	No	No
Wynn et al., 2008	1	0	1	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	Yes (Emotion, Gender)
Wynn et al., 2013	1	0	1	0	0	Schizophrenia	No	No	Yes (Emotion, Gender)
Wynn et al., 2023	3	0	3	0	0	Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder, Schizophreniform Disorder, Delusion Disorder, Psychotic Disorder Not Otherwise Specified	Partial	No	Yes (Emotion, Gender)
Yagci et al., 2023	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No
Yamada et al., 2009	1	1	0	0	0	Schizophrenia	Yes	No	No

Intelligence matching was coded as matched or unmatched on a measure of global intelligence (or years of education as a proxy). Articles were coded as matched if the mean scores of SSD and community samples were not significantly different, regardless of whether matching was deliberate or incidental. Articles were coded as unmatched when samples’ scores differed significantly or if no intelligence/education measure was reported.

Tasks were coded as memory-dependent if they required participants to retain and recall previously learned information. Tasks were coded as memory-independent if they did not require memory for their completion. Memory-dependent tasks included primarily identity recognition tasks that required participants to memorize new faces, as well as tasks involving the recognition of famous faces from popular culture. Note, memory-dependent tasks always involved identity perception.

Task difficulty was coded as close-to-ceiling if the community sample scored ≥90% or not-at-ceiling if they scored below this criterion.

We defined ceiling tasks as those with ≥90% accuracy using the criteria that: (1) tasks must have high accuracy that is close to ceiling; and (2) accuracy threshold must retain enough studies to give no less than a 10:1 ratio between not-at-ceiling and close-to-ceiling effect sizes, as required for moderation analysis.¹³⁹

We intended to code tasks as close-to-floor if the community sample scored ≤10% above chance performance; however, no tasks met this criterion. Task difficulty was also measured as a continuous variable via community sample accuracy (i.e., percentage of correct responses). Analyses including task difficulty were conducted on a subset of effect sizes as some articles provided insufficient data to calculate task difficulty (e.g., accuracy presented as raw scores without a total item number).

Meta-analyses

Multilevel meta-regressions were conducted using mixed linear models in the Metafor package in R.¹⁴⁰ Effect sizes were estimated using Restricted Maximum Likelihood models. Robust Variance Estimation¹⁴¹ was used to account for dependency among effect sizes caused by each article contributing multiple effects. Main and interaction effects were tested via Q-tests (comparable to χ² tests of association in general linear models) which identified whether significant variability among effect sizes could be explained by main or interaction effects.¹⁴² Study procedures followed PRISMA guidelines,¹⁴³ although hypotheses and analysis plans were not preregistered. Data and analysis files are available at OSF (https://osf.io/jybqr/).¹⁴⁴ Note, supplementary material S15 includes detailed descriptions of the tasks and samples, as well as all effect size and moderator data.

To test whether SSD-related impairments were significantly larger for emotion than non-emotion tasks (H1), we examined the main effect of task type. Most moderation effects were tested via interactions between task type and the relevant moderator variable (H2a: SSD severity; H2b: intelligence matching; H2d: task difficulty). The interaction between memory dependency and task type (H2c) could not be tested since emotion tasks were never memory dependent. Instead, articles were split into subsets that used memory-dependent vs memory-independent non-emotion tasks. When articles included both, memory-independent tasks were excluded from analyses so that no sample was included in both subsets. This approach aimed to balance the number of effect sizes provided by the 2 subsets. We then tested whether SSD-related impairments were larger for emotion than non-emotion tasks in the memory-dependent and memory-independent subsets separately.

Analyses were run twice: first as simple models including only the effects and interactions of interest and then as combined models including all possible predictor variables. Combined models tested whether the effect of interest accounted for a unique portion of variance not accounted for by other predictors. Combined models could not include both task type and memory dependency due to multicollinearity between them. There were no other multicollinearity issues among predictor variables. Combined models included fewer effect sizes due to missing data for task difficulty. Most often, simple and combined models produced the same results, so simple models are reported to optimize power. When simple and combined models produced conflicting results, both are reported.

Sensitivity analyses were conducted by rerunning analyses with influential outliers removed. Studentized residuals, Cook’s Distance, DFBETA values, and hat values¹⁴⁰ were used to identify effect size and article level outliers that substantially influenced the models’ parameters (1%–7% of total cases in each model). In 1 instance, trend level results (P value = .05 to .10) became non-significant when outliers were removed so both findings are reported in text. Otherwise, results remained stable when outliers were removed, so we report models with outliers retained.

Results

Table 2 shows the number of effect sizes, papers, and participants in each analysis and predictor variable category. Figure 2 shows effect sizes by article, for emotion and non-emotion impairments. Analyses revealed a moderate SSD-related impairment for all face tasks combined (d = 0.65, p < .001, 95% CI [0.56, 0. 74]). Effect sizes were significant for both emotion and non-emotion tasks at all levels of moderator variables, indicating there were SSD-related impairments regardless of task or study characteristics. This pattern is typical of SSD performance across cognitive tasks^22–24 and demonstrates why significantly lower scores in SSD samples (relative to comparison samples) alone should not be interpreted as evidence for differential impairments. Therefore, we focus on the relative size of SSD-related impairments across task types, not the presence/absence of them. We found considerable heterogeneity among effect sizes (I² range: 71%–85%, p ≤ .001) indicating SSD-related impairments vary substantially across tasks. This heterogeneity warrants moderation analysis¹⁴⁵ to determine which task features impact the size of impairments.

Table 2.

Number of articles, effect sizes and participants in analyses and variable levels

Variable	N articles	N effect sizes	N SSD participants	N comparison participants
Primary Analyses Total	103	313	8036	6951
Task Type
Emotion	103	163	7940	6883
Control	103	150	7973	6904
Identity	75	107	7128	6077
Age	14	20	450	408
Gender	15	18	623	605
Face Orientation	1	1	22	16
Eye Gaze Direction	2	2	42	42
Mixed	2	2	38	38
SSD Severity
High-severity	90	272	5613	6245
Schizophrenia	69	204	3285	2982
Schizoaffective Disorder	3	7	69	616
Mixed Schizophrenia/Schizoaffective Disorder	18	48	2038	2740
Combined High- and Low-severity	5	12	157	150
Low-severity	15	41	1080	1978
High schizotypy	3	9	252	276
Schizotypal Personality Disorder	2	4	75	93
Early psychosis	4	10	134	734
High risk for psychosis	4	10	408	249
Substance-induced psychosis	1	4	20	14
Mixed	2	4	176	627
Intelligence Matching
Matched	58	163	1730	1667
Not matched	49	150	6346	5353
Task Difficulty
Task Difficulty Analyses Total	93	282	699	6863
Close-to-ceiling	42	87	1272	1144
Not-at-ceiling	81	195	6564	5870
Memory Dependency
Memory-dependent subgroup	32	96	3535	2735
Memory-independent subgroup	72	207	4539	4211

Variable	N articles	N effect sizes	N SSD participants	N comparison participants
Primary Analyses Total	103	313	8036	6951
Task Type
Emotion	103	163	7940	6883
Control	103	150	7973	6904
Identity	75	107	7128	6077
Age	14	20	450	408
Gender	15	18	623	605
Face Orientation	1	1	22	16
Eye Gaze Direction	2	2	42	42
Mixed	2	2	38	38
SSD Severity
High-severity	90	272	5613	6245
Schizophrenia	69	204	3285	2982
Schizoaffective Disorder	3	7	69	616
Mixed Schizophrenia/Schizoaffective Disorder	18	48	2038	2740
Combined High- and Low-severity	5	12	157	150
Low-severity	15	41	1080	1978
High schizotypy	3	9	252	276
Schizotypal Personality Disorder	2	4	75	93
Early psychosis	4	10	134	734
High risk for psychosis	4	10	408	249
Substance-induced psychosis	1	4	20	14
Mixed	2	4	176	627
Intelligence Matching
Matched	58	163	1730	1667
Not matched	49	150	6346	5353
Task Difficulty
Task Difficulty Analyses Total	93	282	699	6863
Close-to-ceiling	42	87	1272	1144
Not-at-ceiling	81	195	6564	5870
Memory Dependency
Memory-dependent subgroup	32	96	3535	2735
Memory-independent subgroup	72	207	4539	4211

Note. The number of articles and participants across moderator categories does not sum to the total number of articles or participants in the meta-analyses as articles and participants contributed to multiple categories. There are fewer effect sizes within the task difficulty analyses as some articles included insufficient detail to calculate task difficulty. The primary analyses total reflects the number of articles included in the primary analyses, not the number of articles extracted (n=104) as one article was included in task difficulty analyses and not the primary analyses due to overlapping participant groups across articles. The early psychosis SSD sample group includes samples defined as having schizophreniform disorder, attenuated psychosis syndrome and first-episode psychosis.

Table 2.

Open in new tab Download slide

Number of articles, effect sizes and participants in analyses and variable levels

Variable	N articles	N effect sizes	N SSD participants	N comparison participants
Primary Analyses Total	103	313	8036	6951
Task Type
Emotion	103	163	7940	6883
Control	103	150	7973	6904
Identity	75	107	7128	6077
Age	14	20	450	408
Gender	15	18	623	605
Face Orientation	1	1	22	16
Eye Gaze Direction	2	2	42	42
Mixed	2	2	38	38
SSD Severity
High-severity	90	272	5613	6245
Schizophrenia	69	204	3285	2982
Schizoaffective Disorder	3	7	69	616
Mixed Schizophrenia/Schizoaffective Disorder	18	48	2038	2740
Combined High- and Low-severity	5	12	157	150
Low-severity	15	41	1080	1978
High schizotypy	3	9	252	276
Schizotypal Personality Disorder	2	4	75	93
Early psychosis	4	10	134	734
High risk for psychosis	4	10	408	249
Substance-induced psychosis	1	4	20	14
Mixed	2	4	176	627
Intelligence Matching
Matched	58	163	1730	1667
Not matched	49	150	6346	5353
Task Difficulty
Task Difficulty Analyses Total	93	282	699	6863
Close-to-ceiling	42	87	1272	1144
Not-at-ceiling	81	195	6564	5870
Memory Dependency
Memory-dependent subgroup	32	96	3535	2735
Memory-independent subgroup	72	207	4539	4211

Variable	N articles	N effect sizes	N SSD participants	N comparison participants
Primary Analyses Total	103	313	8036	6951
Task Type
Emotion	103	163	7940	6883
Control	103	150	7973	6904
Identity	75	107	7128	6077
Age	14	20	450	408
Gender	15	18	623	605
Face Orientation	1	1	22	16
Eye Gaze Direction	2	2	42	42
Mixed	2	2	38	38
SSD Severity
High-severity	90	272	5613	6245
Schizophrenia	69	204	3285	2982
Schizoaffective Disorder	3	7	69	616
Mixed Schizophrenia/Schizoaffective Disorder	18	48	2038	2740
Combined High- and Low-severity	5	12	157	150
Low-severity	15	41	1080	1978
High schizotypy	3	9	252	276
Schizotypal Personality Disorder	2	4	75	93
Early psychosis	4	10	134	734
High risk for psychosis	4	10	408	249
Substance-induced psychosis	1	4	20	14
Mixed	2	4	176	627
Intelligence Matching
Matched	58	163	1730	1667
Not matched	49	150	6346	5353
Task Difficulty
Task Difficulty Analyses Total	93	282	699	6863
Close-to-ceiling	42	87	1272	1144
Not-at-ceiling	81	195	6564	5870
Memory Dependency
Memory-dependent subgroup	32	96	3535	2735
Memory-independent subgroup	72	207	4539	4211

Fig. 2.

Forest plot. Note. Effect sizes are presented for each task and are grouped by article. Effects within each article may sample the same or different participants, or a mix of both. Error bars show 95% confidence intervals.

H1: Are SSD-related Impairments Larger for Emotion vs Non-emotion Face Perception Tasks?

Critically, we found SSD-related impairments were significantly larger for emotion (d = 0.74, p < .001, 95% CI [0.64, 0.83]) than non-emotion tasks (d = 0.55, P < .001, 95% CI [0.45, 0.64]), as demonstrated by a significant main effect of task type (Q = 26.39, p < .001, k = 313; figure 3A). This pattern indicates that people with SSD have a differential impairment in emotion face perception.

Fig. 3.

Effects of task type and moderator variables on SSD-related impairments. Note. All effect sizes are significantly different from zero. Error bars show 95% confidence intervals. The large confidence intervals in low-severity SSD samples reflect the small sample size and varied magnitude of deficits found across studies, likely due to sample diversity. In Fig 3A and 3D. the Q statistic tests the difference in effect size between emotion and non-emotion tasks. In Figs 3B., 3C., and 3E. the Q statistic tests the interaction between the moderator variable and task type.

Open in new tab Download slide

H2a: Does SSD Severity Moderate the Size of the Differential Emotion Impairment?

When emotion and non-emotion tasks were combined, high-severity SSD samples showed significantly larger face perception impairments (d = 0.69, p < .001, 95% CI [0.59, 0.78]) than low-severity samples (d = 0.39, p = .001, 95% CI [0.20, 0.59]; Q = 8.16, p = .020, k = 313). Note, this difference approached significance in the combined model (Q = 5.25, p = .060, k = 282), indicating shared variance with other moderators. Critically however, there was no significant interaction between SSD severity and task type (Q = 0.046, p = .833, k = 313), indicating that the difference in magnitude between the emotion and non-emotion impairments was comparable for high-severity (d difference = 0.19) and low-severity SSD (d difference = 0.21; figure 3B). This finding demonstrates that the differential emotion impairment is a feature of SSD populations regardless of symptom severity.

H2b: Does Intelligence Matching Moderate the Size of the Differential Emotion Impairment?

While face perception impairments were numerically smaller when SSD and comparison samples were matched for intelligence (d = 0.62, p < .001, 95% CI [0.51, 0.74]) than when they were not (d = 0.68, p < .001, 95% CI [0.54, 0.81]), this difference was not statistically significant (Q = 0.38, p = .539, k = 313). This pattern indicates that matching samples for intelligence may not substantially influence the magnitude of SSD-related face perception impairments.

Moreover, while the difference between emotion and non-emotion impairments was numerically smaller when samples were intelligence-matched (d difference = 0.15) compared to when they were not (d difference = 0.22; figure 3C), the interaction between intelligence matching and task type was not significant (Q = 0.98, p = .326, k = 313), indicating that the differential emotion impairment was not moderated by intelligence matching. Overall, these results suggest that matching samples for intelligence does not substantially influence the apparent size of the SSD-related differential emotion impairment.

H2c: Does Memory Dependency in Non-emotion Tasks Moderate the Size of the Differential Emotion Impairment?

When considering only non-emotion tasks, impairments were numerically larger when measured with memory-dependent (d = 0.60, p < .001, 95% CI [0.49, 72]) compared to memory-independent tasks (d = 0.54, p < .001, 95% CI [0.42, 0.66]). However, this difference was not statistically significant (Q = 0.69, p = .413, k = 155), indicating that memory dependency may not substantially impact the magnitude of SSD-related impairments on non-emotion tasks.

Moreover, while impairments were numerically larger for emotion than non-emotion tasks in the memory-dependent subset (non-emotion tasks: d = 0.60, p < .001, 95% CI [0.49,0.71]; emotion tasks: d = 0.68, p < .001, 95% CI [0.53, 0.84]) as well as the memory-independent subset (non-emotion tasks: d = 0.52, p < .001, 95% CI [0.37, 0.66]; emotion tasks: d = 0.77, p < .001, 95% CI [0.64, 0.91]), this difference was statistically significant only for the memory-independent subset (Q = 40.47, p < .001, k = 207; figure 3D) and not for the memory-dependent subset (Q = 1.45, p = .238, k = 96). Thus evidence of a differential emotion impairment was absent for the memory-dependent subset. This finding was not explained by the type of non-emotion tasks used (i.e., the memory-dependent subset including only identity tasks while the memory-independent subset included gender, age, and other types of non-emotion tasks; supplementary materials S7). Overall, these results show that confounding task type with SSD-related memory impairments by comparing memory-independent emotion tasks with memory-dependent non-emotion tasks causes emotion and non-emotion impairments to appear equal.

H2d: Does Task Difficulty Moderate the Size of the Differential Emotion Impairment?

Non-emotion tasks were close-to-ceiling more often than emotion tasks (23% of emotion and 39% of non-emotion tasks; χ² = 8.58, p = .003), indicating that non-emotion tasks are more often too easy and, therefore, at risk of underestimating SSD-related performance. This was further demonstrated via continuous task difficulty, as non-emotion tasks were significantly easier (d = 0.33, p < .018, 95% CI [0.06, 0.60]; see supplementary materials S8–S10 for analysis details).

Face perception impairments were smaller in close-to-ceiling tasks (d = 0.57, p < .001, 95% CI [0.47, 0.67]) when compared to not-at-ceiling tasks (d = 0.68, p < .001, 95% CI [0.59, 0.78]). This difference approached significance (Q = 3.51, p = .069, k = 282; Q = 3.00, p = .091, k = 282 when influential outliers were removed), providing tentative evidence that SSD-related face perception impairments may appear smaller when measured by close-to-ceiling tasks. Contrastingly, continuous task difficulty had no significant effect on the size of SSD-related impairments (Q = 0.23, p = .635, k = 282).

Similarly, the difference between emotion and non-emotion impairments appeared smaller when tasks were close-to-ceiling (d difference = 0.06) compared to not-at-ceiling (d difference = 0.22; figure 3E). The interaction between categorical task difficulty and task type was approaching significance (Q = 3.48, p = .070, k = 282), however, it reduced to a null effect when influential outliers were removed (Q = 2.11, p = .157, k = 276). There was no significant interaction between continuous task difficulty and task type (Q = 0.69, p = .411, k = 282; See supplementary materials S11 for Figure). Taken together, these results indicate that the differential emotion impairment is not moderated by task difficulty.

Publication Bias Analysis

A residual funnel plot and extended multilevel meta-regression models¹⁴⁶ were used to test for publication and time-lag biases (supplementary materials S12–S14). A significant time-lag bias was found (slope = −0.02, p < .01, 95% CI = [−0.03, −0.01]) indicating that effect sizes reduced over time. Correcting for time-lag bias produced slightly smaller effect sizes (i.e., unadjusted combined face perception Cohen’s d = 0.65; adjusted for time-lag bias = 0.64) and thus true SSD-related impairments may be marginally smaller than reported herein.

Discussion

The present study provides the first direct, meta-analytic comparison of the size of emotion versus non-emotion face perception impairments in SSD. Our findings demonstrate that people with SSD have a robust, differential impairment in judging emotion from faces relative to other face perception abilities, refuting arguments that poor performance is caused by global impairments in face perception or other cognitive-perceptual processes.²¹ By establishing that impairments are significantly larger for emotion than non-emotion tasks, our results identify that people with SSD experience a specific and differential impairment in emotion perception. The differential emotion impairment was robust to several study design variables, including SSD severity, intelligence matching, and task difficulty. One critical exception, however, is the choice of comparison task. Using memory-dependent identity tasks disadvantages SSD samples due to their memory deficits⁴⁰ and, in turn, inflates identity impairments and weakens the differential emotion impairment. This finding highlights the importance of matching demands across tasks to avoid confounding the results of 1 task with an area of cognitive vulnerability for SSD populations.

Overall, our findings indicate that the differential emotion impairment was robustly present regardless of SSD severity, intelligence matching, and task difficulty. High- and low-severity samples both demonstrated differential emotion impairments, consistent with the dimensional conceptualization of SSD.²⁷ The presence of differential emotion impairments in samples with high trait schizotypy^29,107,128 and symptomatically remitted schizophrenia^18,147 suggests it is a trait-like feature of SSD persistent across states of wellness. Samples with low-severity SSD show considerable heterogeneity in impairment magnitude, consistent with this sample encompassing multiple populations along the SSD continuum. Researchers should continue investigating face perception in low-severity SSD samples so that future meta-analyses can investigate how impairments present across more discrete SSD presentations.

Neither the differential emotion impairment nor the size of face perception impairments in general were substantially impacted by intelligence matching. These null effects run contrary to warnings regarding the “matching fallacy”¹⁴⁸ and call into question the true impact of intelligence matching. Relatives of people with SSD show milder cognitive impairments when matched with community samples for years of education.¹⁴⁹ However, to the best of our knowledge, this effect has yet to be quantified in SSD samples. Future research should identify the empirical consequences of intelligence matching on face perception and cognitive impairments more broadly in SSD samples.

Our findings related to task difficulty simultaneously support the robustness of the differential emotion impairment and highlight the importance of avoiding close-to-ceiling tasks. Although close-to-ceiling tasks produced smaller SSD-related impairments, the differential emotion impairment remained even when measured by these less sensitive tasks. Notably, non-emotion tasks were more often close-to-ceiling (39%), indicating non-emotion impairments are likely underestimated. Despite this, the differential emotion impairment cannot be explained by underestimated non-emotion impairments as they remain when non-emotion tasks are not-at-ceiling and when both tasks are close-to-ceiling and, therefore, comparably lacking sensitivity. Emotion tasks are also often close-to-ceiling (23%), which may explain studies finding no differential emotion impairment if such studies included comparison tasks that were not at ceiling. Our finding—albeit preliminary—that close-to-ceiling tasks produce smaller SSD-related impairments emphasizes the importance of considering the difficulty of experimental tasks.

Surprisingly, continuous task difficulty had no observable relationship with SSD-related impairments. This lack of relationship could mean that task difficulty only impacts on the appearance of SSD-related impairments at the extremes (e.g., ceiling effects) or task difficulty alone insufficiently captures a task’s sensitivity to SSD-related impairments. A broader concept, task-discriminating power, describes how well a task can differentiate the scores of higher- and lower-performing samples.^9,10 Discriminating power is impacted by other variables including reliability, item number, and item-level difficulty,¹⁰ in addition to the overall difficulty of the task. A more sophisticated measure of task-discriminating power may correlate with SSD-related impairments. This concept is compelling given that reliability varies considerably across face perception tasks.^150,151 For example, if emotion tasks were systematically more reliable than non-emotion tasks, greater measurement precision could cause emotion impairments to appear larger. Researchers should consider task difficulty, reliability, and other aspects of discriminating power when selecting and matching their experimental tasks.

Given the SSD-related memory impairments,⁴⁰ it is perhaps unsurprising that face perception abilities are confounded when measured by tasks with a substantial memory load. This raises the question: why would researchers use memory-dependent identity tasks at all? Perhaps for ecological validity, as real-life identity perception often requires memory in ways emotion perception does not.¹⁵² For example, our findings indicate people with SSD would have comparable difficulty recognizing an acquaintance in a crowd (ie, high memory load) and identifying someone’s emotion, whereas recognizing their boss would be easier (ie, lower memory load). When operationalizing the dual process of memory-dependent identity perception, researchers should emphasize that this confounds results to avoid overestimation of face-specific impairments. When identifying differential impairments in a discrete area of cognition, however, researchers should avoid tasks requiring multiple, distinct processes to prevent misattributing the cause of impairments.

Clinical and Research Implications

Our findings have clinical implications for SSD populations. Robust evidence for a differential emotion impairment aligns with the assertion that “hot” or emotionally salient, reward-relevant aspects of cognition are more impaired in SSD than “cold” or logical, emotionally neutral aspects of cognition.^153,154 People with SSD are also highly influenced by “hot,” emotionally salient stimuli^155–158 which, combined with error in their perception of such stimuli, may contribute to their experience of positive symptoms (e.g., hallucinations). The differential emotion impairment also positions emotion perception difficulties as a specific characteristic of SSD that cannot be wholly accounted for by general cognitive-perceptual impairments. This finding justifies considering emotion perception impairments as a mechanism for difficulties in broader social cognitive processes (e.g., theory of mind, social problem solving) and thus a target for intervention. Researchers often speculate that these processes may be influenced by impaired emotion perception.^15,159 While the current findings cannot speak to causality, they position emotion impairments as a strong candidate to pursue in treatment. For example, clinical interventions targeting emotion perception skills, such as emotion-specific cognitive remediation programs,¹⁶⁰ now have stronger theoretical backing with the demonstration of a differential emotion impairment in SSD.

Our findings also offer guidance for future SSD-related face perception research. First, the shared impairment profile across high- and low-severity SSD samples supports recruiting more accessible, low-severity samples and generalizing findings across presentations. Although this may require larger sample sizes, our effect sizes can guide power analyses to avoid Type I errors. Second, as intelligence matching has no discernible impact on face perception impairments, findings from matched samples are a valid representation of true SSD-abilities—contrary to warnings about the “matching fallacy”^37,148—and researchers can refrain from intelligence matching in the future. Third, researchers should carefully consider the demands of their tasks, which should be as similar as possible outside of the skill under investigation to avoid confounding results. This may require balancing ecological validity with confound minimization. For example, Face Recognition from the Amsterdam Neuropsychological Tasks¹⁶¹ (participants identify a previously shown, single target face from an array of 4) may be selected over the Warrington Recognition Memory Test³⁹ (participants select which face from a pair they recognize from a previously shown list of 50 faces). Both tasks involve recognizing newly learned faces as is inherent to identity perception, but the Warrington test involves a high memory load rarely necessary in real-life settings (i.e., remembering 50 new faces after just 3 s of exposure). Finally, our results provide preliminary evidence that using close-to-ceiling tasks dilutes the magnitude of SSD-related impairments. Although the magnitude of the differential emotion impairment was not significantly impacted by task difficulty, figure 3E demonstrates that using close-to-ceiling tasks may still be problematic. Researchers would be prudent to use tasks with an optimal, moderate difficulty level¹⁶² until more is known about the impact of discriminating power on SSD-related face perception performance.

Open Questions and Limitations

An important open question is whether the SSD-related impairment for non-emotion tasks reflects purely general cognitive impairments or a differential impairment in non-emotion face perception. Future work should investigate this question by comparing performance on non-emotion face tasks with non-face visual tasks. Guided by our findings regarding memory dependency, these tasks should be matched on memory demands and other cognitive-perceptual requirements to ensure performance scores capture the intended processes.

Another question is whether the scope of this meta-analysis has influenced results. It is possible that by including only articles with both emotion and non-emotion tasks, our meta-analysis includes mostly simple non-emotion tasks as comparison tasks. Articles that focus primarily on non-emotion face perception may use more complex non-emotion tasks and, consequently, may identify greater SSD-related impairments. Future research may wish to compare accuracy scores herein with a broader range of non-emotion face perception tasks from the literature to investigate this possibility.

A critical clinical direction is to explore which SSD symptoms are associated with emotion perception impairments. Existing evidence is varied. For example, Chan et al’s³ meta-analysis found that negative symptoms correlate with emotion impairments, whereas positive symptoms correlate with non-emotion impairments. In contrast, other studies have found positive symptoms correlate with emotion impairments but not non-emotion impairments.^163,164 This inconsistency highlights the need to explore whether task (e.g., difficulty) or sample features (e.g., acute versus remitted diagnoses) moderate which SSD symptom profiles are most prone to emotion perception impairments.

We were limited by the constraints of subset analysis when investigating memory dependency as a moderator. There was a significant differential emotion impairment in the memory-independent subset and not the memory-dependent subset. However, without testing the interaction between memory dependency and task type we could not empirically test whether the magnitude of the differential emotion impairment differed significantly between the subsets. It is also possible that the memory-dependent subset showed no differential emotion impairment due to having fewer effects and therefore reduced power relative to the memory-independent subset. Despite these limitations, this was our best option for exploring the effect of memory dependency given variable constraints and available data.

Our coding of the intelligence matching variable was limited by the lack of information provided by articles. It was often unclear whether samples were deliberately or incidentally matched for intelligence. As such, both cases were coded as matched. However, samples that were incidentally matched were functionally indistinguishable from articles that did not measure intelligence (and thus were coded as not matched) but whose samples would have been incidentally matched if administered a measure. All cases were retained to maximize power, meaning there was an error in our variable of intelligence matching. Future research should endeavor to quantify the impact of intelligence matching on SSD-related impairments, for face perception and beyond.

Conclusion

Our meta-analysis is the first to empirically demonstrate a differential emotion impairment in SSD, as evidenced by significantly larger impairments for emotion compared to non-emotion face perception. The differential emotion impairment is present regardless of key study characteristics including task difficulty, SSD severity, and whether experimental and control samples are matched on measures of intelligence. The differential emotion impairment is absent when non-emotion comparison tasks are memory-dependent, highlighting that the common practice of using memory-dependent identity perception tasks for comparison should be avoided. This practice confounds results by compounding face perception abilities with memory in the comparison task only, making for an unfair comparison with memory-independent emotion perception. Overall, our findings clarify that there are true, differential emotion face perception impairments in SSD that are not simply the result of general cognitive impairments. Rather, a subset of individual studies may not identify larger emotion impairments due to using poorly matched comparison tasks with additional cognitive demands. By identifying a differential emotion impairment, our findings position emotion impairments as a primary feature of SSD which can be targeted for treatment or investigated as a casual feature in functional difficulties.

Supplementary Material

Supplementary material is available at https://dbpia.nl.go.kr/schizophreniabulletin/.

Acknowledgments

There is no funding to report. We thank Dr Yong Foo for support in refining the code required for analyses, Prof. Michael Smithson for assistance in interpreting publication bias, and A/Prof. Stephanie Goodhew for support with manuscript revision. We thank the authors of articles included in our meta-analysis for providing data to make this research possible. The authors have declared that there are no conflicts of interest in relation to the subject of this study.

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