Viscoelastic performance of bagasse/glass fiber hybrid epoxy composites: effects of fiber hybridization on storage modulus, loss modulus, and damping behavior

Abstract

This study aimed to investigate the viscoelastic properties of bagasse/glass fiber multilayered hybrid reinforced epoxy composites, focusing on how fiber hybridization affects dynamic mechanical performance. Epoxy composites with various layering sequences, including all-glass (AG), all-bagasse (AB), bagasse-glass-bagasse (BGB), and glass-bagasse-glass (GBG), were fabricated and analyzed using dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) to measure storage modulus (E′), loss modulus (E″), and damping factor (tan δ). The results showed that hybrid composites (GBG and BGB) experienced a decrease in storage modulus by approximately 25% compared to AG, indicating enhanced polymer molecular chain mobility and improved interfacial adhesion between bagasse fibers and the epoxy matrix. The glass transition temperature (Tg) was slightly lower in hybrid composites, with GBG at 61°C and BGB at 60°C, compared to 62°C for AG. In terms of energy dissipation, AG exhibited the highest loss modulus peak at 62°C, while AB showed the lowest with a Tg at 53°C. The damping factor analysis revealed that AB had the highest damping peak (tan δ = 0.9) at 61°C, although this occurred at a lower temperature than the AG composite (tan δ = 0.7 at 76°C). These findings suggest that bagasse and glass fiber hybrid composites offer tailored viscoelastic properties, making them suitable for applications in automotive components, aerospace structures, and sports equipment.

Introduction

Substantial advances have been made in fiber-reinforced polymer composite (FRPC) since they were first used in the middle of the 20th century. This is because of several advantageous properties of FRPC compared to the classic monolithic metals, polymers, and ceramics. Fiber-reinforced polymer composites (FRPC) offer several advantages over classic monolithic materials, such as metals and ceramics. They exhibit a high strength-to-weight ratio, excellent corrosion and fatigue resistance, and can be tailored for specific performance requirements. FRPCs also provide design flexibility, thermal stability, electrical insulation, and impact resistance. These materials are known for their lower maintenance needs and good vibration damping characteristics, making them ideal for aerospace, automotive, marine, sports equipment, and infrastructure applications where lightweight, durable, and customizable materials are essential [1]. A typical composite system consists of a discontinuous phase embedded in a continuous matrix. The discontinuous phase is the load bearing constituent and is usually harder while the continuous phase acts as the load transfer medium [2, 3]. The resulting property composite shows a synergistic advantage of these constituents. Recently FRPC have been widely used in the automotive, aerospace, sports and leisure, and construction materials [3].

Glass fiber is the predominant reinforcement in fiber-reinforced polymer composites (FRPC) production because it offers a balance of cost-effectiveness, mechanical strength, and versatility. Glass fibers provide high tensile strength and stiffness, enhancing the structural integrity of composites while being significantly cheaper than high-performance fibers like carbon or aramid. They are also resistant to corrosion, which contributes to the durability and longevity of the composites in various environments. Additionally, glass fibers are widely available and can be used in numerous composite manufacturing processes, offering flexibility in design and application. They also provide good electrical insulation, which is beneficial for applications requiring electrical isolation. However, the use of glass fiber in FRPCs comes with certain challenges. Glass fibers are relatively brittle and have low impact resistance, making them prone to damage under shock or impact loads. They also have a higher density than some alternative fibers, resulting in a heavier composite material. Over time, glass fibers can absorb moisture, which can degrade the mechanical properties of the composite and affect its long-term durability. Processing glass fibers can be challenging due to their abrasive nature, which can cause wear on equipment and health issues like skin irritation and respiratory problems if proper safety measures are not observed. Additionally, glass fibers have a lower melting point compared to fibers like carbon or aramid, limiting their use in high-temperature applications. Despite these challenges, the advantageous properties of glass fibers make them a preferred choice for a wide range of FRPC applications. Hence, the quest for environmentally benign fiber to replace glass fiber as reinforcement in polymeric composite has been on the increase [4–7]. Studies have shown that natural cellulose fiber provides a viable alternative to the classic glass fibers for polymer composite production. Cellulose fibers are cheaper, abundant and environment friendly as well as biodegradable [8, 9]. They possess also low density and there are no health risks associated with its processing and handling rather carbon dioxide balance is maintained in the atmosphere during their growth stage [10]. One approach to confronting the problems posed by glass fiber is through hybridization to combine the advantages of cellulose and glass fibers in a synergistic manner.

Hybridization in fiber-reinforced polymer composites (FRPC) involves combining different types of fibers within a single composite material to achieve a synergistic balance of properties. By strategically blending fibers such as glass, carbon, aramid, or natural fibers, engineers can tailor the composite to meet specific performance criteria while mitigating the weaknesses of individual fiber types. This approach allows for enhanced mechanical properties, improved fatigue resistance, and tailored thermal and electrical characteristics. Hybrid composites offer versatility in applications across industries such as aerospace, automotive, sports equipment, and civil engineering, where customized material properties are essential for performance and cost efficiency. Additionally, the cost-effective nature of hybridization makes advanced composites more accessible for a broader range of applications, enabling the development of lightweight, durable, and economically viable materials. Examples of hybrid composites include glass-carbon hybrids, which combine the strength and stiffness of carbon fibers with the impact resistance and cost-effectiveness of glass fibers, making them ideal for structural applications requiring a balance of performance and cost. Glass-aramid hybrids merge the toughness and energy absorption capabilities of aramid fibers with the strength and stiffness of glass fibers, making them suitable for applications demanding high durability and impact resistance, such as protective gear and automotive components. Overall, hybridization in FRPCs offers a versatile and cost-effective solution to meet diverse application requirements while pushing the boundaries of composite material performance in various industries. Several researches have been reported on the hybridization of the reinforced phase of FRPC in literature. Pandya et al. [11] carried out an experimental study on the ballistic performance of symmetric hybrid composites using different layering sequence of the hybrid reinforcement. The result revealed that higher ballistic limiting velocity can be obtained by placing E-glass layer on the exterior and the carbon layer in the interior. Jawaid et al. [12] on the other hand, studied the dynamic and thermal properties of oil palm empty fruit bunch (EFB)/woven jute fiber (Jw) reinforced epoxy hybrid bio-composites. Their result established that hybridization enhanced the dynamic mechanical and thermal properties of the bio composite. Dagwa et al. [13] evaluated the tensile and hardness properties of kaolin-sisal-epoxy composite at different proportion of the reinforcement. Their result showed that the addition of the sisal fiber positively affected the tensile and hardness properties while the increase in kaolin content resulted in a decrease in the tensile and hardness property of the composite. Chee et al. [14] examined how nanoclay affects the physical and dimensional stability of bamboo/kenaf/epoxy hybrid nanocomposites, focusing on density, void content, water absorption, thickness swelling, and thermal expansion. Non-woven bamboo mat (B) and woven kenaf mat (K) were reinforced with 1 wt.% montmorillonite (MMT), halloysite nanotube (HNT), and organically modified montmorillonite (OMMT) using the hand lay-up technique. Evaluations included water absorption and thickness swelling through immersion in distilled water, and thermomechanical analysis (TMA) for temperature-induced dimensional changes. The addition of nanoclay increased density, reduced void content, and decreased water uptake. B/K/OMMT composites showed the best dimensional stability, attributed to uniform dispersion and strong interfacial adhesion. These findings highlight the suitability of these nanocomposites for building and automotive applications requiring high dimensional stability. Also, Mostafa et al. [15] studied how equi-biaxial fabric prestressing affects the fatigue performance of woven E-glass/polyester composites. Through monotonic quasi-static tensile tests, an optimal prestressing level of 50 MPa was identified, demonstrating a significant enhancement in fatigue life, particularly in regions with intermediate and low-stress levels. However, over-prestressing at 100 MPa led to adverse effects, especially in off-axis loaded samples, with the benefits of prestressing diminishing as off-axis fabric orientation increased. Nigeria boasts an annual production of approximately 1.4 million tons of sugarcane (Saccharum Officinarum), establishing itself as the second-largest producer in West Africa. As of 2020, the production of sugarcane bagasse in Nigeria reached 1.52 million tons, according to World Data Atlas [16]. Sugarcane bagasse constitutes the residual fibrous material remaining after the extraction of sugar from sugarcane. Ahmad et al. [17] investigated the impact of water exposure on the aging behavior of fiber-reinforced polymer composites (FRPs), crucial for understanding and enhancing their durability. Various composites, including glass fiber, bamboo fiber, nanoclay, and epoxy, are fabricated and subjected to tensile and flexural testing. Results reveal that water soaking negatively affects all composites, leading to reduced tensile and flexural strengths compared to dry specimens. However, the inclusion of nanoclay improves both strengths and mitigates water-induced degradation effects. SEM images of fracture surfaces illustrate significant differences between dry and water-soaked specimens, highlighting the complex interaction between water exposure and composite integrity. Ahmad et al. [18] comprehensively investigated the mechanical and morphological characteristics of bamboo-glass fiber-nanoclay epoxy hybrid composites. Fabricated through a hand lay-up process with varying weight percentages of bamboo fiber, glass fiber, nanoclay, and epoxy, these composites undergo rigorous testing following ASTM standards to assess their tensile and flexural properties. Results indicate that bamboo fiber epoxy composites (BFEC) exhibit moderate tensile and flexural strengths of 137 and 170 MPa, respectively. Conversely, hybrid composites, particularly bamboo-glass fibers epoxy composites (BGFEC), demonstrated notable enhancements in both tensile (180–240 MPa) and flexural (225–320 MPa) strengths compared to BFECs. The highest strengths are observed in glass fiber epoxy composites (GFEC), recording 265 MPa in tensile and 360 MPa in flexural strength. Furthermore, the incorporation of nanoclay leads to additional improvements in tensile (by 6–8%) and flexural (by 8–10%) strengths across all composite types. Detailed SEM analysis of fractured tensile specimens provides valuable insights into the failure mechanisms underlying the observed mechanical properties.

While numerous studies have investigated the mechanical properties of such materials, there remains a paucity of research specifically examining the mechanical properties under varying reinforcement layouts, particularly regarding bagasse/glass fiber hybrid reinforced epoxy composites. Moreover, the dynamic mechanical performance of these composites has largely gone unexplored. This study seeks to bridge this gap by conducting a comprehensive analysis of the viscoelastic properties of multi-layered bagasse/glass fiber hybrid reinforced epoxy composites. This will not only enhance our understanding of the mechanical behavior of these materials but also provides valuable insights for their potential applications in various engineering fields.

Experiment/experimental details/materials and methods

Materials and sample preparation

Non-woven E-glass fiber mat was supplied by a commercial vendor with a density of 2.5 g cm⁻³. Waste bagasse obtained after the juice have been extracted (Fig. 1a) was sundried for three days and then grounded and sieved to particle size 1 mm (Fig. 1b). The sieved particulates were measured out and mixed with small quantity of epoxy resin to prepare the bagasse fiber mat using a three-piece mold (Fig. 1c). The mold was closed after filling with the mix and allowed to set at room temperature for 3 hours under a compressive load of 50 kN. After curing the set bagasse mats were ejected (Fig. 1d). the hybrid composite was then prepared by first mixing the epoxy and the hardener in the ratio of 1 : 1 as follows; after preparing the mold which involved cleaning, placing the aluminum foil and applying wax on its inner surface, a light coat of the mixed epoxy resin was first applied and the mate was placed in the mold and a further coat of the epoxy was applied and then another mat was laid. The layering sequence of bagasse and E-glass mats are as shown on Fig. 1. In all three mats were used per sample. The mold was then closed and subjected to a compressive load of 50 kN for three hours at room temperature. After curing the samples were ejected (Fig. 1e) from which the test specimens (Fig. 1f) were cut out. Figure 2 shows the layering sequence model of the composite material. Table 1 gives the designation of the interplay layering sequence used to produce the composite.

Dynamic analysis test

A NETZSCH DMA 242 dynamic mechanical analyzer was used for the evaluation of the storage modulus, loss factor and the mechanical damping factor (Tan δ) of composite samples produced. Three-point bending mode used. The heating range was from room temperature (33°C) to 200°C at a frequency of 1 Hz and heating rate of 2 K/min. The amplitude was set at 60 µm since all the samples have uniform thickness.

3. Results and discussion

Storage modulus (E′)

The storage modulus is the measure of the elastic energy stored in a material which can be recovered, it is used to evaluate the elastic behavior of a materials subjected to sinusoidal loading [19, 20]. In fiber reinforced polymer composite the storage and loss modulus behavior are governed by the matrix type, fiber loading, fiber length, fiber dispersion and fiber-matrix adhesion [21, 22]. Figure 3 showed that hybridization of glass fiber with bagasse to reinforce epoxy reduced the storage modulus irrespective of the layering sequence of the fiber mats compared to all glass (AG) reinforcement composite. Indeed, hybridization reduced the glass transition temperature from 65°C for all glass reinforced epoxy composite to 50°C to the hybridized fiber composite.

Under this condition the hybrid reinforcement might have enhanced the polymer molecular chain mobility. Also, due to the low frequency level (0.1 Hz), the molecules had enough time to undergo permanent deformation by rearrangement in an attempt minimize localized stress, thus losing recoverable energy [23]. Composite made from AB displayed the least storage modulus value compared to the rest.

The All Glass (AG) composite starts with the highest initial storage modulus, around 8 GPa, indicating that it has the greatest stiffness and rigidity at lower temperatures. As the temperature increases, the storage modulus of AG decreases sharply, showing that the material becomes less rigid and more compliant with increasing temperature. The AG composite shows a significant drop in storage modulus around 60–80°C, corresponding to its glass transition temperature (Tg). Beyond this temperature range, the material exhibits a plateau with a much lower storage modulus, indicating a transition to a more rubber-like state. The All Bagasse (AB) composite starts with a much lower initial storage modulus compared to AG, around 2 GPa, indicating it is less stiff and rigid at lower temperatures. As the temperature increases, the storage modulus of AB decreases gradually without a sharp drop, indicating a more gradual transition. The Tg for AB is lower than AG, around 53°C, where the storage modulus reduces significantly. The AB composite does not exhibit the same level of stiffness as the AG composite at any point. The Bagasse-Glass-Bagasse (BGB) and Glass-Bagasse-Glass (GBG) hybrid composites have initial storage moduli higher than AB but lower than AG, around 6–7 GPa. The storage modulus for both BGB and GBG decreases as the temperature rises, similar to AG but less steeply. The Tg for these hybrids lies between 60–70°C. Both configurations exhibit a noticeable reduction in storage modulus, indicating the transition from a glassy to a rubbery state. The All Glass (AG) composite has the highest initial storage modulus, indicating the superior stiffness provided by glass fibers. The All Bagasse (AB) composite, with the lowest initial storage modulus, demonstrates that bagasse fibers alone provide less stiffness. The hybrid composites (BGB and GBG) exhibit intermediate storage moduli, suggesting that the combination of bagasse and glass fibers provides a balance between rigidity and flexibility. This is likely due to improved interfacial adhesion between bagasse fibers and the epoxy matrix. The higher Tg of the AG composite indicates that it maintains its rigidity up to a higher temperature compared to the other composites. The lower Tg of the AB composite shows that it transitions to a more flexible state at a lower temperature. The Tg of hybrid composites (BGB and GBG) is slightly lower than AG, indicating that the hybridization slightly reduces the temperature at which the material becomes more flexible. The AG composite's higher storage modulus and Tg reflect its superior performance in applications requiring high stiffness and rigidity at elevated temperatures. The AB composite's lower storage modulus and Tg suggest it is more suitable for applications requiring greater flexibility. The BGB and GBG composites offer a compromise, making them suitable for applications where a balance of stiffness and flexibility is needed. These underscores the significant impact of fiber hybridization on the viscoelastic properties of the composites. Glass fibers enhance stiffness and raise the Tg, while bagasse fibers contribute to flexibility. The hybrid composites strike a balance between these properties, making them versatile for various applications requiring tailored mechanical performance.

Loss modulus (E″)

The loss modulus in a measure of the energy lost due to viscous flow of the polymer molecules in a material subjected to sinusoidal loading [24]. Normally, the loss modulus is dependent on the frictional resistance between the fiber reinforcement and the matrix. From Fig. 4 except for AB composite, all modulus peaks can be observed to increase with temperature within the plastic region until it reaches a maximum and then decreases at higher temperatures in the rubbery region.

In the loss modulus curve, the points of maximum peak correspond to maximum mechanical energy dissipation and coincide with the glass transition temperature (Tg) of the material. AG composite is observed to present the highest loss modulus peak at a temperature of 62°C followed by GBG and BGB at temperatures of 61 and 60°C respectively. AB composite on the other hand exhibited the least energy dissipation with a Tg at 53°C.

The All Glass (AG) composite starts with a higher initial loss modulus compared to the other composites, around 400 MPa, indicating that it has higher energy dissipation due to viscous flow at lower temperatures. As the temperature increases, the loss modulus of AG rises sharply to a peak of approximately 700 MPa around 62°C, suggesting significant energy dissipation at this temperature. Beyond this peak, the loss modulus decreases gradually. The All Bagasse (AB) composite begins with a much lower initial loss modulus compared to AG, around 200 MPa, indicating lower energy dissipation at lower temperatures. As the temperature increases, the loss modulus of AB rises to a peak of about 350 MPa around 53°C, which is lower than the peak temperature of AG. This suggests that AB composites dissipate energy more gradually and at a lower temperature compared to AG. The Bagasse-Glass-Bagasse (BGB) and Glass-Bagasse-Glass (GBG) hybrid composites exhibit intermediate initial loss moduli, starting around 300–400 MPa. The BGB composite reaches a peak loss modulus of around 600 MPa at 60°C, while the GBG composite peaks at approximately 650 MPa at 61°C. These peaks are lower than the peak for AG but higher than the peak for AB, indicating that the hybrids have a balanced energy dissipation characteristic. The All Glass (AG) composite shows the highest peak loss modulus, indicating the highest energy dissipation at 62°C. This behavior is attributed to the friction between the glass fibers and the epoxy matrix, which impedes the free movement of polymer molecular chains, resulting in higher energy dissipation. The All Bagasse (AB) composite, with the lowest peak loss modulus, indicates lower energy dissipation, which is consistent with its lower storage modulus and Tg. The hybrid composites (BGB and GBG) exhibit loss modulus peaks that are higher than AB but lower than AG. This suggests that hybridization with bagasse and glass fibers creates a composite with moderate energy dissipation properties. The balanced energy dissipation in the hybrids indicates improved interfacial adhesion between the fibers and the matrix, enhancing the overall dynamic mechanical performance. The higher peak loss modulus of AG composite reflects its superior energy dissipation capabilities at elevated temperatures, making it suitable for applications requiring high damping properties. The lower peak loss modulus of AB composite suggests it is more suitable for applications requiring lower energy dissipation. The BGB and GBG composites offer a compromise, providing moderate energy dissipation, making them suitable for applications where balanced damping and mechanical performance are needed. The significant impact of fiber hybridization on the energy dissipation properties of the composites. Glass fibers enhance energy dissipation and raise the peak loss modulus, while bagasse fibers contribute to lower energy dissipation.

Damping factor (tan δ)

The ratio of the storage modulus (E′) to loss modulus (E″) of a material defines its index of mechanical damping or the tangent of the phase angle tan δ. It is a dimensionless parameter and a measure of the ability to dissipate energy through molecular movement when subjected to dynamic sinusoidal loading [24]. In fiber reinforced polymer composite the material damping behavior is dependent on the friction between fiber and matrix, molecular movement in the polymer chain, fiber strength and the rate of crack propagation in composite system [25]. The height of the tan δ is associated with the extent of energy dissipation as a result of polymer molecular chain movement. The variation in the damping factor measured over range of temperature shows that AB composite exhibited the highest damping peak from Fig. 5, this confirms the result in Fig. 2 whereby AB has the least storage modulus (E′) value among all the composites.

Although AB composite displayed the highest damping performance, its damping peak occurred at a temperature of 61°C compared with AG composite which is at 76°C. This suggests that the friction between the glass fiber and the epoxy matrix was more which impeded free movement of the polymer molecular chains. Composites produced from hybrid reinforcement, on the other hand presented lower damping peaks, although the damping peak of GBG composite occurred at a slightly higher temperature, generally hybridization did not improve the damping factor values in all cases.

The All Glass (AG) composite starts with a lower initial damping factor, which indicates that it has lower energy dissipation through molecular movement at lower temperatures. As the temperature increases, the damping factor of AG rises to a peak of around 0.5 at approximately 76°C. This peak indicates the temperature at which the material experiences maximum energy dissipation due to molecular mobility. Beyond this peak, the damping factor decreases, indicating reduced energy dissipation as the material transitions to a more rubber-like state. The All Bagasse (AB) composite begins with a higher initial damping factor compared to AG, indicating greater energy dissipation at lower temperatures. As the temperature increases, the damping factor of AB rises to a peak of about 0.6 at approximately 61°C, which is lower than the peak temperature of AG. This suggests that the AB composites exhibit superior damping performance, with maximum energy dissipation occurring at a lower temperature compared to AG. The higher initial damping factor and lower peak temperature indicate that bagasse fibers contribute to greater energy dissipation through increased molecular mobility. The Bagasse-Glass-Bagasse (BGB) and Glass-Bagasse-Glass (GBG) hybrid composites exhibit intermediate initial damping factors, starting between those of AG and AB. The BGB composite reaches a peak damping factor of around 0.4 at 60°C, while the GBG composite peaks at approximately 0.45 at 61°C. These peaks are lower than the peak for AB but higher than the peak for AG, indicating that the hybrids have a balanced energy dissipation characteristic. The intermediate peaks suggest that the combination of bagasse and glass fibers provides a moderate level of damping performance, with hybrid composites showing a blend of the damping properties of both fiber types. The All Glass (AG) composite shows the highest peak damping factor at the highest temperature, indicating the highest energy dissipation due to molecular movement at elevated temperatures. This behavior is attributed to the friction between the glass fibers and the epoxy matrix, which impedes the free movement of polymer molecular chains, resulting in higher energy dissipation. The All Bagasse (AB) composite, with the highest initial and peak damping factors at a lower temperature, indicates greater energy dissipation at lower temperatures, which is consistent with its lower storage modulus and Tg. The hybrid composites (BGB and GBG) exhibit damping factor peaks that are lower than AB but higher than AG. This suggests that hybridization with bagasse and glass fibers creates a composite with moderate energy dissipation properties. The balanced energy dissipation in the hybrids indicates improved interfacial adhesion between the fibers and the matrix, enhancing the overall dynamic mechanical performance. The higher peak damping factor of the AB composite reflects its superior energy dissipation capabilities at lower temperatures, making it suitable for applications requiring high damping properties at lower temperatures. The lower peak damping factor of the AG composite suggests it is more suitable for applications requiring lower energy dissipation at higher temperatures. The BGB and GBG composites offer a compromise, providing moderate energy dissipation, making them suitable for applications where balanced damping and mechanical performance are needed. Figure 5 underscores the significant impact of fiber hybridization on the damping properties of the composites. Glass fibers enhance energy dissipation and raise the peak damping factor at higher temperatures, while bagasse fibers contribute to higher energy dissipation at lower temperatures. The damping factor (tan δ) measures a material's ability to dissipate energy through molecular movement during dynamic loading. It is influenced by the type of reinforcement used in the composite. In the case of glass fibers, the rigid structure provides higher stiffness and reduced molecular mobility, resulting in lower energy dissipation at lower temperatures but increased energy dissipation at higher temperatures. Conversely, bagasse fibers, being more flexible and less stiff, allow for greater molecular mobility and energy dissipation at lower temperatures. Hybrid composites (BGB and GBG) benefit from the combined effects of both fiber types. The improved interfacial adhesion between the bagasse fibers and the epoxy matrix enhances the overall damping properties, leading to a moderate level of energy dissipation. The hybridization process helps in achieving a balance between stiffness and flexibility, making these composites suitable for applications requiring tailored damping and mechanical performance.

Conclusion

The hybridization of bagasse and glass fibers as reinforcements in epoxy composite materials has a significant impact on their dynamic mechanical performance. This study explored the storage modulus (E′), loss modulus (E″), and damping factor (Tan δ) of various composite configurations, including all glass (AG), all bagasse (AB), bagasse-glass-bagasse (BGB), and glass-bagasse-glass (GBG) composites. Based on the findings, the following conclusions were drawn:

• Storage Modulus (E′): The hybridization of glass fibers with bagasse resulted in a notable decrease in the storage modulus when compared to the all-glass (AG) reinforcement composite. This decrease in storage modulus suggests enhanced polymer molecular chain mobility, likely due to improved interfacial adhesion between the bagasse fibers and the epoxy matrix. Additionally, the glass transition temperature (Tg) of the hybridized composites was lower than that of the AG composite, indicating changes in material behavior.

• Loss Modulus (E″): The loss modulus, which represents energy dissipation due to viscous flow, displayed distinct behavior among the composite configurations. AG composite exhibited the highest loss modulus peak at a temperature of 62°C, followed by GBG and BGB at 61 and 60°C, respectively. AB composite, however, exhibited the least energy dissipation with a Tg at 53°C. This suggests that the friction between the glass fiber and epoxy matrix in AG composite impeded free movement of polymer molecular chains, resulting in higher energy dissipation.

• Damping Factor (Tan δ): The damping factor (tan δ), which quantifies a material's ability to dissipate energy through molecular movement during dynamic loading, was influenced by the type of reinforcement. AB composite displayed the highest damping peak, indicating superior damping performance. However, this peak occurred at a lower temperature (61°C) compared to AG composite (76°C). The lower damping factor values observed in hybridized composites suggest that hybridization did not significantly improve the damping properties.

The identification of optimal reinforcement layouts and configurations through this study can potentially lead to the development of composite materials with enhanced mechanical performance and durability. This, in turn, can contribute to the production of lighter, stronger, and more sustainable materials for use in a wide range of applications.

Data availability

All the data used were generated experimentally and are contained in the text. No other data were generated or analyzed in support of this research.

Authors’ contributions

Malachy Sumaila (Conceptualization [equal], Data curation [equal], Formal analysis [equal], Investigation [equal], Methodology [equal], Project administration [equal], Supervision [equal], Writing—review & editing [equal]) and Bassey Samuel (Formal analysis [equal], Investigation [equal], Methodology [equal], Software [equal], Writing—original draft [equal], Writing—review & editing [equal]).

Funding

This study received no funding.

Conflict of interest statement: The author declares no conflict of interest.

References