Summary

A best evidence topic in cardiac surgery was written according to a structured protocol. The question addressed was whether adrenaline might be a useful addition to a protocol for the management of cardiac arrests for patients shortly after cardiac surgery. Altogether 889 papers were found using the reported search, of which 16 represented the best evidence to answer the clinical question. The authors, journal, date and country of publication, patient group studied, study type, relevant outcomes and results of these papers are tabulated. The quality and level of evidence was assessed using the International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation guideline recommendations. We conclude that the European Resuscitation Council and the American Heart Association both recommend 1 mg of adrenaline as soon as pulseless electrical activity or asystole is identified or after the second failed shock if the rhythm is VF/pulseless VT. However, they acknowledge that the evidence behind this recommendation is lacking and based entirely on animal studies which have as yet not been successfully replicated in human studies to show a benefit of survival to hospital discharge. They acknowledge that the current evidence is insufficient to support or refute the use of adrenaline in arrests and the International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation grade the recommendation to give adrenaline in cardiac arrests as ‘indeterminate’. Thus, in the particular situation of a patient who arrests shortly after cardiac surgery where the chance of restoring sinus rhythm either by defibrillation or by an emergency re-sternotomy is high, and where adrenaline could in this situation be highly dangerous once sinus rhythm is restored, we recommend that 1 mg of adrenaline forms no part of the resuscitation protocol for patients who arrest after cardiac surgery.

1. Introduction

A best evidence topic was constructed according to a structured protocol. This is fully described in the ICVTS [1]. The quality of each study was assessed using the International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation 2005 protocol [2].

2. Three-part question

In [patients who have arrested shortly after cardiac surgery] does [the routine administration of 1 mg of adrenaline] improve [survival]?

3. Clinical scenario

A 72-year-old patient suffers a cardiac arrest 1 h after triple coronary artery bypass graft. The rhythm is pulseless electrical activity (PEA). The nursing staff commence cardiac massage and follow the European Resuscitation Council guideline which is to give 1 mg of adrenaline immediately for pulseless electrical activity (PEA) or asystole. The surgeon is rapidly available and performs an emergency resternotomy within 3 min. On reopening there is a considerable gush of blood and a tamponade is relieved. Sinus rhythm returns but unfortunately the blood pressure rapidly rises to 250/150 due to the adrenaline, and several of the proximal graft anastomosis sutures cut through. After redoing both top-ends and oversewing the aortic and venous cannulation sites, you wonder what possible benefit adrenaline was in that arrest scenario.

4. Search strategy

Medline-1950 to Nov-2007 using OVID interface.

[adrenaline.mp OR epinephrine.mp OR exp Epinephrine/] AND [exp Resuscitation/OR resuscitation.mp OR exp Cardiopulmonary resuscitation/] AND [exp survival/OR survival.mp OR exp Patient discharge/OR discharge.mp].

Embase-1980 to Nov-2007 using the OVID interface. Search repeated replacing keywords epinephrine with adrenaline, patient discharge with hospital discharge, and cardiopulmonary resuscitation with resuscitation.

Cochrane DSR, ACP journal club and DARE searched using the term ‘Adrenaline’.

5. Search outcome

Three hundred and twenty-eight papers were found in MEDLINE, 499 in EMBASE and 62 in the Cochrane collection using the reported search. From these, 16 papers were identified that provided the best evidence to answer the question. These are presented in Table 1 .

Table 1

Best evidence papers

Author, date and countryPatient groupOutcomesKey resultsComments
Study type (level of evidence)
Long et al., (2005),ILCOR worksheetRecommendationsThe use of epinephrine in cardiac arrest due to ventricular fibrillation is
Circulation, USA, [5]supported by animal studies: many in the past and 3 in the last
Hypothesis: Epinephrine5 years. (level of evidence 6).
Systematic review of(at either standard dosesIt does provide adverse consequences as well, and subsequent doses do
experimental studiesor higher doses) is a safenot appear to provide as dramatic an effect in raising coronary
(level 6, excellent)and effective adjunct toperfusion pressure (and thus chance of ROSC) as the first dose
defibrillation in cardiacHowever, due to the lack of human placebo-controlled trials,
arrests due to ventricularepinephrine is Class Indeterminate. For PEA and asystole, the use of
fibrillation (asystole also considered)epinephrine is also Class Indeterminate
Epinephrine, 1 mg IV, given every 3–5 min, is generally accepted as
useful in cardiac arrest from all rhythms although no human trials have
compared epinephrine to placebo
Cairns et al., (1998),14 Dogs had induced VFROSC– n=11 animals could notThe hemodynamic response to the first
Resuscitation, USA, [7]and were left without be resuscitateddose of EPI determines if the critical
CPR for 7.5 min– n=3 successfullyCPP needed for ROSC and survival
Experimental study resuscitatedwill occur. Repeat doses of EPI do not
(level 6, fair)CPR was then resumedappear to improve CPP to a degree to
and Epinephrine andOnly 1 animal survived afteraffect clinically meaningful measures of
countershocks were asa second dose of adrenalineoutcome, i.e. successful countershock
per guidelines from 1998and survival
Success measured asCPPIn those animals that could
return of spontaneousnot be resuscitated the
circulation for 30 minincrease in CPP after EPI
averaged only 3±2 mmHg
– Epinephrine 1 mg was
 administered whenSubsequent doses produced
 indicated and atno significant effect on CPP
 recommended time(2±4 mmHg)
 intervals
In those animals
successfully resuscitated
(n=3), the change in CPP
was 21±11 mmHg after the
first dose of EPI
Biondi-Zoccai et al., (2003),Search for studies thatROSC in humanVasopressinDid not search EMBASE
Resuscitation, Ireland, [13]compared treatment ofstudies63% (78/124)
cardiac arrest usingAdrenalineDetails of individual studies not
Meta-analysis mainlyvasopressin with either59% (68/116)presented in adequate detail
experimental studiesplacebo or adrenalineP=0.43
(level 6, fair)
2 human studies and 33ROSC in animalVasopressin
animal studies foundstudies vasopressin84% (225/268)
vs. adrenalineAdrenaline
59% (117/224)
P<0.001
ROSC in animalVasopressin
studies vasopressin93% (98/105)
vs. adrenalinePlacebo
19% (14/72)
P<0.001
Klouche et al., (2003),Twenty rats withSurvival in hoursAlpha-MNEBoth post-resuscitation myocardial
Resuscitation, USA, [8]ventricular fibrillation57±14 hfunction and survival were most
(VF) untreated for 8 minVPN 41±8 himproved after administration of the
Experimental studyand then CPR (at a rateEpinephrineselective alpha(2)-adrenergic agonist,
(level 6, fair)of 200 bpm and ventilation31±10 hintermediate after vasopressin and least
at 100 breaths per min)Controlafter epinephrine and saline placebo
15±6 h
CPR protocol differed to current
Drug treatment was with:CPP (coronaryRise to around 30 mmHg inresuscitation guidelines, as shocks
Alpha-MNE in a dose ofperfusion pressure)all drug groups.given 4 min after drug
100 μg/kg, VasopressinIn controls rise was to
in a dose of 0.4 U/kg.20 mmHg
Epinephrine in a dose of
30 μg/kg, or saline controlMyocardialPost-resuscitation
function (leftmyocardial function and
ventricularsurvival were significantly
pressure, cardiacbetter in animals treated
index)with alpha-MNE (lower
LVEDP)
Lindberg et al., (2000),18 Swedish bred pigsCoronary perfusionControlVasopressors increased coronary
Resuscitation, Sweden, [9]with full monitoring afterpressure during7±2 mmHgperfusion pressure and the likelihood
a sternotomy, monitorarrestAdrenalineof a return of spontaneous circulation,
Experimental studyinsertion and chest45±5 mmHgbut decreased end-tidal CO2
(level 6, fair)closure.Noradrenalineconcentration and induced a critical
VF arrest without CPR38±5 mmHgdeterioration in cardiac output and thus
for 1 min and 5 min ofoxygen delivery in this model of
chest compressions usingCO2 productionControlcardiopulmonary resuscitation
a chest compressorduring arrest106±15 ml/min
AdrenalineDoesn't address question directly of
Adrenaline or66±5 ml/minwhether adrenaline is good in cardiac
noradrenaline or controlNoradrenalinearrest, just elucidates details of what its
given at that stage62±6 ml/minphysiologic effects are
– Evaluation of changes inCO2 productionControl
 end-tidal CO230 min after arrest211±1 ml/min
 concentration, CPP afterAdrenaline
 injection of vasopressors233±8 ml/min
 during cardiopulmonaryNoradrenaline
 resuscitation.173±14 ml/min
 End-tidal CO2
 concentration correlates
 with pulmonary blood
 flow
Holmberg et al., (2002),A national survey of% patients whoAdrenaline was given inNeither in total nor in any subgroup
Resuscitation, Sweden, [15]ambulance organisationsreceived adrenaline42.4% of patientsdid they find results indicating
in Sweden between 1990–beneficial effects of any of these two
Retrospective cohort study1995 among 14065% patients who47.5% of patients wereinterventions
(level 4, unsatisfactory)patients with out-of-hospitalwere intubatedintubated
cardiac arrest. OfDue to the retrospective cohort design
these, resuscitation wasSurvival in patientsIndependent predictor forof the study many factors determine
attempted in 10966 caseswith ventricularadverse outcomeadministration of adrenaline including
fibrillation(OR 0.43, CI 0.27–0.66)prolonged arrest and also certain
Multivariate risk factorsambulance crews were not licenced to
for adverse outcomeSurvival in patientsIndependent predictor forgive it, therefore, little inference can be
analysedwith with a non-shockablelower survivaldrawn from these results
rhythm(OR 0.30, CI 0.07–0.82)
Behringer et al., (1998),178 adults withROSCIn 178 patients:The authors controlled for the length of
Ann Int Med, Austria,non-traumatic,a) n=151 (84%)resuscitation as a confounder, but
[16]normothermic VF cardiac spontaneous circulationdespite this, many other confounders
arrest brought to the was restoredmight have caused this result. i.e.
Retrospective cohort studyemergency departmentasystolic patients tend to receive more
(level 4, poor)with an unsuccessfulNeurologic outcomeb) n=63 (42%) hadadrenaline as less time is spent on
initial defibrillationassessed by favourable neurologicdefibrillation, and asystole is known to
cerebral recovery.have a poorer outcome compared to
The median cumulativeperformance Patients with an unfavourableVF
epinephrine dosecategory (CPC) CPC received a significantly
administered was 4 mgwithin 6 months higher cumulative dose of
(range, 0–50 mg)after cardiac arrest. epinephrine than did
A CPC of 1 or 2 patients with a favourable
was defined as CPC (4 mg compared with
favourable 1 mg)
Vandycke et al., (2000),5 randomised trialsROSCOdd ratio favouredNo statistically significant beneficial
Resuscitation, Belgium, [12]where high dose ofHigh-dose adrenalineeffect of high and/or escalating doses of
adrenaline was compared1.14 (1.02–1.27)epinephrine in comparison with
Meta-analysis ofvs. standard dosestandard dose of epinephrine in
randomised trialsepinephrine in cardiacSurvival to hospitalNo differencesurvival
(level 1, excellent)arrest identified from aadmission1.03 (0.86–1.24)
literature search fromThe authors do not describe whether
1988–1998Hospital dischargeOdd ratio was against highthe 5 studies used high-dose adrenaline
dose adrenalineas a first dose or only after one dose
Standard dose was0.74 (0.53–1.03)had failed
usually 1 mg adrenaline
Did not distinguish between rhythmns
High-dose adrenaline was
from 5 to 15 mg
Chen et al., (2007),47 rabbits with cardiacCPP in adrenaline4–36 mmHg at peakEpinephrine, but not vasopressin,
Am J Emerg Med, China,arrest induced bygroupvalue, P=0.000increases survival rates in this adult
[10]clamping the endotrachealrabbit asphyxia model
tube that did not recoverCPP in vasopressin9–18 mmHg at peak,
Experimental studywith CPRgroupvalue, P=0.20
(level 6, good)
Randomised toROSC after drugEpinephrine 13 of 24
epinephrine groupadministrationVasopressin 2 of 23
(n=24) and vasopressinP<0.01
group (n=23)
Ristagno et al., (2007),10 Yorkshire-crossCerebral corticalPost resuscitationCortical microcirculatory blood flow
Crit Care Med,domestic pigs hadmicrocirculatorymicrovascular flows andwas markedly reduced after
USA, [11]untreated VF arrest forblood flow andPbO2 were greater and PbCO2epinephrine, resulting in a greater
3 mincortical tissue PO2less after vasopressin whenseverity of brain ischemia after the
Experimental studyand PCO2 ascompared with epinephrineROSC in contrast to the more benign
(level 6, good)Then randomized toindicators ofA significantly greatereffects of vasopressin
receive central venouscortical tissuenumber of cortical
injections ofischaemiamicrovessels were perfusedPerformed 3 sequential shocks 4 min
epinephrine (30 μg/kg) orafter vasopressinafter arrest and further shocks at 1 min
vasopressin (0.4 units/kg)intervals. Not current ACLS algorithm
at 1 min after the start ofCPP at 4 min ofVasopressin 20±2 mmHg
cardiopulmonaryCPRAdrenaline 21±6 mmHg
resuscitation using aResuscitation successful in
thumperROSCall animals
Wenzel et al., for the1186 patients with an outHospital admissionVasopressin group 46.2%The effects of vasopressin were similar
European Resuscitationof hospital arrest werein patients withEpinephrine group 43.0%to those of epinephrine in the
Council Vasopressor duringrandomly assigned to:ventricular(P=0.48)management of ventricular fibrillation
Cardiopulmonary2 doses of vasopressinfibrillation,and pulseless electrical activity, but
Resuscitation Study Group(40 IU) or 1 dose ofpulseless electricalVasopressin group 33.7%vasopressin was superior to
(2004), New Englepinephrine (1 mg).activityEpinephrine group 30.5%epinephrine in patients with asystole.
J Med, Austria,Followed by additional(P=0.65)Vasopressin followed by epinephrine
[17]treatment withmay be more effective than epinephrine
epinephrine if neededAsystoleVasopressin group 29.0%alone in the treatment of refractory
PRCTEpinephrine 20.3%cardiac arrest
(level 2, excellent)Endpoint: survival to(P=0.02)
hospital admission
AdditionalVasopressin group 25.7%
EpinephrineEpinephrine group 16.4%
(P=0.002)
Pytte et al., (2006),17 pigs had fullCoronary perfusionLabCPRThe haemodynamic effects of
Resuscitation, Norway, [18]monitoring, then 3 minpressure (CPP)29 mmHgadrenaline depend on chest
of untreated VF arrestClinicalCPRcompression quality.
Experimental studyAdrenaline administered12 mmHgPeak dose of the delivery of adrenaline
(level 6, excellent)and types of CPR given:P<0.02was significantly delayed when
simulating clinically reported CPR
Clinical quality CPRCortical cerebralLabCPRquality compared to good quality CPR
manually performedblood flow (CCBF)45% of baseline(150 s vs. 90 s)
chest compressions (30b-ClinicalCPR
38 mm depth) with a35% of baselineAdrenaline improved haemodynamics
frequencyduring good quality CPR in pigs, but
of 100 min−1 interruptedFemoral blood flowLabCPRnot with quality simulating clinically
by a 9 s break(FBF)1.2 ml/minreported CPR performance
every 15 compressionsClinicalCPR
2.5 ml/minHistorical CPR Ratio
P<0.02
LabCPR
automatic hydraulic
chest compression device
(Heartsaver 2000)
maintaining consistent
chest compressions of
45 mm depth, 100 min−1
Author, date and countryPatient groupOutcomesKey resultsComments
Study type (level of evidence)
Long et al., (2005),ILCOR worksheetRecommendationsThe use of epinephrine in cardiac arrest due to ventricular fibrillation is
Circulation, USA, [5]supported by animal studies: many in the past and 3 in the last
Hypothesis: Epinephrine5 years. (level of evidence 6).
Systematic review of(at either standard dosesIt does provide adverse consequences as well, and subsequent doses do
experimental studiesor higher doses) is a safenot appear to provide as dramatic an effect in raising coronary
(level 6, excellent)and effective adjunct toperfusion pressure (and thus chance of ROSC) as the first dose
defibrillation in cardiacHowever, due to the lack of human placebo-controlled trials,
arrests due to ventricularepinephrine is Class Indeterminate. For PEA and asystole, the use of
fibrillation (asystole also considered)epinephrine is also Class Indeterminate
Epinephrine, 1 mg IV, given every 3–5 min, is generally accepted as
useful in cardiac arrest from all rhythms although no human trials have
compared epinephrine to placebo
Cairns et al., (1998),14 Dogs had induced VFROSC– n=11 animals could notThe hemodynamic response to the first
Resuscitation, USA, [7]and were left without be resuscitateddose of EPI determines if the critical
CPR for 7.5 min– n=3 successfullyCPP needed for ROSC and survival
Experimental study resuscitatedwill occur. Repeat doses of EPI do not
(level 6, fair)CPR was then resumedappear to improve CPP to a degree to
and Epinephrine andOnly 1 animal survived afteraffect clinically meaningful measures of
countershocks were asa second dose of adrenalineoutcome, i.e. successful countershock
per guidelines from 1998and survival
Success measured asCPPIn those animals that could
return of spontaneousnot be resuscitated the
circulation for 30 minincrease in CPP after EPI
averaged only 3±2 mmHg
– Epinephrine 1 mg was
 administered whenSubsequent doses produced
 indicated and atno significant effect on CPP
 recommended time(2±4 mmHg)
 intervals
In those animals
successfully resuscitated
(n=3), the change in CPP
was 21±11 mmHg after the
first dose of EPI
Biondi-Zoccai et al., (2003),Search for studies thatROSC in humanVasopressinDid not search EMBASE
Resuscitation, Ireland, [13]compared treatment ofstudies63% (78/124)
cardiac arrest usingAdrenalineDetails of individual studies not
Meta-analysis mainlyvasopressin with either59% (68/116)presented in adequate detail
experimental studiesplacebo or adrenalineP=0.43
(level 6, fair)
2 human studies and 33ROSC in animalVasopressin
animal studies foundstudies vasopressin84% (225/268)
vs. adrenalineAdrenaline
59% (117/224)
P<0.001
ROSC in animalVasopressin
studies vasopressin93% (98/105)
vs. adrenalinePlacebo
19% (14/72)
P<0.001
Klouche et al., (2003),Twenty rats withSurvival in hoursAlpha-MNEBoth post-resuscitation myocardial
Resuscitation, USA, [8]ventricular fibrillation57±14 hfunction and survival were most
(VF) untreated for 8 minVPN 41±8 himproved after administration of the
Experimental studyand then CPR (at a rateEpinephrineselective alpha(2)-adrenergic agonist,
(level 6, fair)of 200 bpm and ventilation31±10 hintermediate after vasopressin and least
at 100 breaths per min)Controlafter epinephrine and saline placebo
15±6 h
CPR protocol differed to current
Drug treatment was with:CPP (coronaryRise to around 30 mmHg inresuscitation guidelines, as shocks
Alpha-MNE in a dose ofperfusion pressure)all drug groups.given 4 min after drug
100 μg/kg, VasopressinIn controls rise was to
in a dose of 0.4 U/kg.20 mmHg
Epinephrine in a dose of
30 μg/kg, or saline controlMyocardialPost-resuscitation
function (leftmyocardial function and
ventricularsurvival were significantly
pressure, cardiacbetter in animals treated
index)with alpha-MNE (lower
LVEDP)
Lindberg et al., (2000),18 Swedish bred pigsCoronary perfusionControlVasopressors increased coronary
Resuscitation, Sweden, [9]with full monitoring afterpressure during7±2 mmHgperfusion pressure and the likelihood
a sternotomy, monitorarrestAdrenalineof a return of spontaneous circulation,
Experimental studyinsertion and chest45±5 mmHgbut decreased end-tidal CO2
(level 6, fair)closure.Noradrenalineconcentration and induced a critical
VF arrest without CPR38±5 mmHgdeterioration in cardiac output and thus
for 1 min and 5 min ofoxygen delivery in this model of
chest compressions usingCO2 productionControlcardiopulmonary resuscitation
a chest compressorduring arrest106±15 ml/min
AdrenalineDoesn't address question directly of
Adrenaline or66±5 ml/minwhether adrenaline is good in cardiac
noradrenaline or controlNoradrenalinearrest, just elucidates details of what its
given at that stage62±6 ml/minphysiologic effects are
– Evaluation of changes inCO2 productionControl
 end-tidal CO230 min after arrest211±1 ml/min
 concentration, CPP afterAdrenaline
 injection of vasopressors233±8 ml/min
 during cardiopulmonaryNoradrenaline
 resuscitation.173±14 ml/min
 End-tidal CO2
 concentration correlates
 with pulmonary blood
 flow
Holmberg et al., (2002),A national survey of% patients whoAdrenaline was given inNeither in total nor in any subgroup
Resuscitation, Sweden, [15]ambulance organisationsreceived adrenaline42.4% of patientsdid they find results indicating
in Sweden between 1990–beneficial effects of any of these two
Retrospective cohort study1995 among 14065% patients who47.5% of patients wereinterventions
(level 4, unsatisfactory)patients with out-of-hospitalwere intubatedintubated
cardiac arrest. OfDue to the retrospective cohort design
these, resuscitation wasSurvival in patientsIndependent predictor forof the study many factors determine
attempted in 10966 caseswith ventricularadverse outcomeadministration of adrenaline including
fibrillation(OR 0.43, CI 0.27–0.66)prolonged arrest and also certain
Multivariate risk factorsambulance crews were not licenced to
for adverse outcomeSurvival in patientsIndependent predictor forgive it, therefore, little inference can be
analysedwith with a non-shockablelower survivaldrawn from these results
rhythm(OR 0.30, CI 0.07–0.82)
Behringer et al., (1998),178 adults withROSCIn 178 patients:The authors controlled for the length of
Ann Int Med, Austria,non-traumatic,a) n=151 (84%)resuscitation as a confounder, but
[16]normothermic VF cardiac spontaneous circulationdespite this, many other confounders
arrest brought to the was restoredmight have caused this result. i.e.
Retrospective cohort studyemergency departmentasystolic patients tend to receive more
(level 4, poor)with an unsuccessfulNeurologic outcomeb) n=63 (42%) hadadrenaline as less time is spent on
initial defibrillationassessed by favourable neurologicdefibrillation, and asystole is known to
cerebral recovery.have a poorer outcome compared to
The median cumulativeperformance Patients with an unfavourableVF
epinephrine dosecategory (CPC) CPC received a significantly
administered was 4 mgwithin 6 months higher cumulative dose of
(range, 0–50 mg)after cardiac arrest. epinephrine than did
A CPC of 1 or 2 patients with a favourable
was defined as CPC (4 mg compared with
favourable 1 mg)
Vandycke et al., (2000),5 randomised trialsROSCOdd ratio favouredNo statistically significant beneficial
Resuscitation, Belgium, [12]where high dose ofHigh-dose adrenalineeffect of high and/or escalating doses of
adrenaline was compared1.14 (1.02–1.27)epinephrine in comparison with
Meta-analysis ofvs. standard dosestandard dose of epinephrine in
randomised trialsepinephrine in cardiacSurvival to hospitalNo differencesurvival
(level 1, excellent)arrest identified from aadmission1.03 (0.86–1.24)
literature search fromThe authors do not describe whether
1988–1998Hospital dischargeOdd ratio was against highthe 5 studies used high-dose adrenaline
dose adrenalineas a first dose or only after one dose
Standard dose was0.74 (0.53–1.03)had failed
usually 1 mg adrenaline
Did not distinguish between rhythmns
High-dose adrenaline was
from 5 to 15 mg
Chen et al., (2007),47 rabbits with cardiacCPP in adrenaline4–36 mmHg at peakEpinephrine, but not vasopressin,
Am J Emerg Med, China,arrest induced bygroupvalue, P=0.000increases survival rates in this adult
[10]clamping the endotrachealrabbit asphyxia model
tube that did not recoverCPP in vasopressin9–18 mmHg at peak,
Experimental studywith CPRgroupvalue, P=0.20
(level 6, good)
Randomised toROSC after drugEpinephrine 13 of 24
epinephrine groupadministrationVasopressin 2 of 23
(n=24) and vasopressinP<0.01
group (n=23)
Ristagno et al., (2007),10 Yorkshire-crossCerebral corticalPost resuscitationCortical microcirculatory blood flow
Crit Care Med,domestic pigs hadmicrocirculatorymicrovascular flows andwas markedly reduced after
USA, [11]untreated VF arrest forblood flow andPbO2 were greater and PbCO2epinephrine, resulting in a greater
3 mincortical tissue PO2less after vasopressin whenseverity of brain ischemia after the
Experimental studyand PCO2 ascompared with epinephrineROSC in contrast to the more benign
(level 6, good)Then randomized toindicators ofA significantly greatereffects of vasopressin
receive central venouscortical tissuenumber of cortical
injections ofischaemiamicrovessels were perfusedPerformed 3 sequential shocks 4 min
epinephrine (30 μg/kg) orafter vasopressinafter arrest and further shocks at 1 min
vasopressin (0.4 units/kg)intervals. Not current ACLS algorithm
at 1 min after the start ofCPP at 4 min ofVasopressin 20±2 mmHg
cardiopulmonaryCPRAdrenaline 21±6 mmHg
resuscitation using aResuscitation successful in
thumperROSCall animals
Wenzel et al., for the1186 patients with an outHospital admissionVasopressin group 46.2%The effects of vasopressin were similar
European Resuscitationof hospital arrest werein patients withEpinephrine group 43.0%to those of epinephrine in the
Council Vasopressor duringrandomly assigned to:ventricular(P=0.48)management of ventricular fibrillation
Cardiopulmonary2 doses of vasopressinfibrillation,and pulseless electrical activity, but
Resuscitation Study Group(40 IU) or 1 dose ofpulseless electricalVasopressin group 33.7%vasopressin was superior to
(2004), New Englepinephrine (1 mg).activityEpinephrine group 30.5%epinephrine in patients with asystole.
J Med, Austria,Followed by additional(P=0.65)Vasopressin followed by epinephrine
[17]treatment withmay be more effective than epinephrine
epinephrine if neededAsystoleVasopressin group 29.0%alone in the treatment of refractory
PRCTEpinephrine 20.3%cardiac arrest
(level 2, excellent)Endpoint: survival to(P=0.02)
hospital admission
AdditionalVasopressin group 25.7%
EpinephrineEpinephrine group 16.4%
(P=0.002)
Pytte et al., (2006),17 pigs had fullCoronary perfusionLabCPRThe haemodynamic effects of
Resuscitation, Norway, [18]monitoring, then 3 minpressure (CPP)29 mmHgadrenaline depend on chest
of untreated VF arrestClinicalCPRcompression quality.
Experimental studyAdrenaline administered12 mmHgPeak dose of the delivery of adrenaline
(level 6, excellent)and types of CPR given:P<0.02was significantly delayed when
simulating clinically reported CPR
Clinical quality CPRCortical cerebralLabCPRquality compared to good quality CPR
manually performedblood flow (CCBF)45% of baseline(150 s vs. 90 s)
chest compressions (30b-ClinicalCPR
38 mm depth) with a35% of baselineAdrenaline improved haemodynamics
frequencyduring good quality CPR in pigs, but
of 100 min−1 interruptedFemoral blood flowLabCPRnot with quality simulating clinically
by a 9 s break(FBF)1.2 ml/minreported CPR performance
every 15 compressionsClinicalCPR
2.5 ml/minHistorical CPR Ratio
P<0.02
LabCPR
automatic hydraulic
chest compression device
(Heartsaver 2000)
maintaining consistent
chest compressions of
45 mm depth, 100 min−1
Table 1

Best evidence papers

Author, date and countryPatient groupOutcomesKey resultsComments
Study type (level of evidence)
Long et al., (2005),ILCOR worksheetRecommendationsThe use of epinephrine in cardiac arrest due to ventricular fibrillation is
Circulation, USA, [5]supported by animal studies: many in the past and 3 in the last
Hypothesis: Epinephrine5 years. (level of evidence 6).
Systematic review of(at either standard dosesIt does provide adverse consequences as well, and subsequent doses do
experimental studiesor higher doses) is a safenot appear to provide as dramatic an effect in raising coronary
(level 6, excellent)and effective adjunct toperfusion pressure (and thus chance of ROSC) as the first dose
defibrillation in cardiacHowever, due to the lack of human placebo-controlled trials,
arrests due to ventricularepinephrine is Class Indeterminate. For PEA and asystole, the use of
fibrillation (asystole also considered)epinephrine is also Class Indeterminate
Epinephrine, 1 mg IV, given every 3–5 min, is generally accepted as
useful in cardiac arrest from all rhythms although no human trials have
compared epinephrine to placebo
Cairns et al., (1998),14 Dogs had induced VFROSC– n=11 animals could notThe hemodynamic response to the first
Resuscitation, USA, [7]and were left without be resuscitateddose of EPI determines if the critical
CPR for 7.5 min– n=3 successfullyCPP needed for ROSC and survival
Experimental study resuscitatedwill occur. Repeat doses of EPI do not
(level 6, fair)CPR was then resumedappear to improve CPP to a degree to
and Epinephrine andOnly 1 animal survived afteraffect clinically meaningful measures of
countershocks were asa second dose of adrenalineoutcome, i.e. successful countershock
per guidelines from 1998and survival
Success measured asCPPIn those animals that could
return of spontaneousnot be resuscitated the
circulation for 30 minincrease in CPP after EPI
averaged only 3±2 mmHg
– Epinephrine 1 mg was
 administered whenSubsequent doses produced
 indicated and atno significant effect on CPP
 recommended time(2±4 mmHg)
 intervals
In those animals
successfully resuscitated
(n=3), the change in CPP
was 21±11 mmHg after the
first dose of EPI
Biondi-Zoccai et al., (2003),Search for studies thatROSC in humanVasopressinDid not search EMBASE
Resuscitation, Ireland, [13]compared treatment ofstudies63% (78/124)
cardiac arrest usingAdrenalineDetails of individual studies not
Meta-analysis mainlyvasopressin with either59% (68/116)presented in adequate detail
experimental studiesplacebo or adrenalineP=0.43
(level 6, fair)
2 human studies and 33ROSC in animalVasopressin
animal studies foundstudies vasopressin84% (225/268)
vs. adrenalineAdrenaline
59% (117/224)
P<0.001
ROSC in animalVasopressin
studies vasopressin93% (98/105)
vs. adrenalinePlacebo
19% (14/72)
P<0.001
Klouche et al., (2003),Twenty rats withSurvival in hoursAlpha-MNEBoth post-resuscitation myocardial
Resuscitation, USA, [8]ventricular fibrillation57±14 hfunction and survival were most
(VF) untreated for 8 minVPN 41±8 himproved after administration of the
Experimental studyand then CPR (at a rateEpinephrineselective alpha(2)-adrenergic agonist,
(level 6, fair)of 200 bpm and ventilation31±10 hintermediate after vasopressin and least
at 100 breaths per min)Controlafter epinephrine and saline placebo
15±6 h
CPR protocol differed to current
Drug treatment was with:CPP (coronaryRise to around 30 mmHg inresuscitation guidelines, as shocks
Alpha-MNE in a dose ofperfusion pressure)all drug groups.given 4 min after drug
100 μg/kg, VasopressinIn controls rise was to
in a dose of 0.4 U/kg.20 mmHg
Epinephrine in a dose of
30 μg/kg, or saline controlMyocardialPost-resuscitation
function (leftmyocardial function and
ventricularsurvival were significantly
pressure, cardiacbetter in animals treated
index)with alpha-MNE (lower
LVEDP)
Lindberg et al., (2000),18 Swedish bred pigsCoronary perfusionControlVasopressors increased coronary
Resuscitation, Sweden, [9]with full monitoring afterpressure during7±2 mmHgperfusion pressure and the likelihood
a sternotomy, monitorarrestAdrenalineof a return of spontaneous circulation,
Experimental studyinsertion and chest45±5 mmHgbut decreased end-tidal CO2
(level 6, fair)closure.Noradrenalineconcentration and induced a critical
VF arrest without CPR38±5 mmHgdeterioration in cardiac output and thus
for 1 min and 5 min ofoxygen delivery in this model of
chest compressions usingCO2 productionControlcardiopulmonary resuscitation
a chest compressorduring arrest106±15 ml/min
AdrenalineDoesn't address question directly of
Adrenaline or66±5 ml/minwhether adrenaline is good in cardiac
noradrenaline or controlNoradrenalinearrest, just elucidates details of what its
given at that stage62±6 ml/minphysiologic effects are
– Evaluation of changes inCO2 productionControl
 end-tidal CO230 min after arrest211±1 ml/min
 concentration, CPP afterAdrenaline
 injection of vasopressors233±8 ml/min
 during cardiopulmonaryNoradrenaline
 resuscitation.173±14 ml/min
 End-tidal CO2
 concentration correlates
 with pulmonary blood
 flow
Holmberg et al., (2002),A national survey of% patients whoAdrenaline was given inNeither in total nor in any subgroup
Resuscitation, Sweden, [15]ambulance organisationsreceived adrenaline42.4% of patientsdid they find results indicating
in Sweden between 1990–beneficial effects of any of these two
Retrospective cohort study1995 among 14065% patients who47.5% of patients wereinterventions
(level 4, unsatisfactory)patients with out-of-hospitalwere intubatedintubated
cardiac arrest. OfDue to the retrospective cohort design
these, resuscitation wasSurvival in patientsIndependent predictor forof the study many factors determine
attempted in 10966 caseswith ventricularadverse outcomeadministration of adrenaline including
fibrillation(OR 0.43, CI 0.27–0.66)prolonged arrest and also certain
Multivariate risk factorsambulance crews were not licenced to
for adverse outcomeSurvival in patientsIndependent predictor forgive it, therefore, little inference can be
analysedwith with a non-shockablelower survivaldrawn from these results
rhythm(OR 0.30, CI 0.07–0.82)
Behringer et al., (1998),178 adults withROSCIn 178 patients:The authors controlled for the length of
Ann Int Med, Austria,non-traumatic,a) n=151 (84%)resuscitation as a confounder, but
[16]normothermic VF cardiac spontaneous circulationdespite this, many other confounders
arrest brought to the was restoredmight have caused this result. i.e.
Retrospective cohort studyemergency departmentasystolic patients tend to receive more
(level 4, poor)with an unsuccessfulNeurologic outcomeb) n=63 (42%) hadadrenaline as less time is spent on
initial defibrillationassessed by favourable neurologicdefibrillation, and asystole is known to
cerebral recovery.have a poorer outcome compared to
The median cumulativeperformance Patients with an unfavourableVF
epinephrine dosecategory (CPC) CPC received a significantly
administered was 4 mgwithin 6 months higher cumulative dose of
(range, 0–50 mg)after cardiac arrest. epinephrine than did
A CPC of 1 or 2 patients with a favourable
was defined as CPC (4 mg compared with
favourable 1 mg)
Vandycke et al., (2000),5 randomised trialsROSCOdd ratio favouredNo statistically significant beneficial
Resuscitation, Belgium, [12]where high dose ofHigh-dose adrenalineeffect of high and/or escalating doses of
adrenaline was compared1.14 (1.02–1.27)epinephrine in comparison with
Meta-analysis ofvs. standard dosestandard dose of epinephrine in
randomised trialsepinephrine in cardiacSurvival to hospitalNo differencesurvival
(level 1, excellent)arrest identified from aadmission1.03 (0.86–1.24)
literature search fromThe authors do not describe whether
1988–1998Hospital dischargeOdd ratio was against highthe 5 studies used high-dose adrenaline
dose adrenalineas a first dose or only after one dose
Standard dose was0.74 (0.53–1.03)had failed
usually 1 mg adrenaline
Did not distinguish between rhythmns
High-dose adrenaline was
from 5 to 15 mg
Chen et al., (2007),47 rabbits with cardiacCPP in adrenaline4–36 mmHg at peakEpinephrine, but not vasopressin,
Am J Emerg Med, China,arrest induced bygroupvalue, P=0.000increases survival rates in this adult
[10]clamping the endotrachealrabbit asphyxia model
tube that did not recoverCPP in vasopressin9–18 mmHg at peak,
Experimental studywith CPRgroupvalue, P=0.20
(level 6, good)
Randomised toROSC after drugEpinephrine 13 of 24
epinephrine groupadministrationVasopressin 2 of 23
(n=24) and vasopressinP<0.01
group (n=23)
Ristagno et al., (2007),10 Yorkshire-crossCerebral corticalPost resuscitationCortical microcirculatory blood flow
Crit Care Med,domestic pigs hadmicrocirculatorymicrovascular flows andwas markedly reduced after
USA, [11]untreated VF arrest forblood flow andPbO2 were greater and PbCO2epinephrine, resulting in a greater
3 mincortical tissue PO2less after vasopressin whenseverity of brain ischemia after the
Experimental studyand PCO2 ascompared with epinephrineROSC in contrast to the more benign
(level 6, good)Then randomized toindicators ofA significantly greatereffects of vasopressin
receive central venouscortical tissuenumber of cortical
injections ofischaemiamicrovessels were perfusedPerformed 3 sequential shocks 4 min
epinephrine (30 μg/kg) orafter vasopressinafter arrest and further shocks at 1 min
vasopressin (0.4 units/kg)intervals. Not current ACLS algorithm
at 1 min after the start ofCPP at 4 min ofVasopressin 20±2 mmHg
cardiopulmonaryCPRAdrenaline 21±6 mmHg
resuscitation using aResuscitation successful in
thumperROSCall animals
Wenzel et al., for the1186 patients with an outHospital admissionVasopressin group 46.2%The effects of vasopressin were similar
European Resuscitationof hospital arrest werein patients withEpinephrine group 43.0%to those of epinephrine in the
Council Vasopressor duringrandomly assigned to:ventricular(P=0.48)management of ventricular fibrillation
Cardiopulmonary2 doses of vasopressinfibrillation,and pulseless electrical activity, but
Resuscitation Study Group(40 IU) or 1 dose ofpulseless electricalVasopressin group 33.7%vasopressin was superior to
(2004), New Englepinephrine (1 mg).activityEpinephrine group 30.5%epinephrine in patients with asystole.
J Med, Austria,Followed by additional(P=0.65)Vasopressin followed by epinephrine
[17]treatment withmay be more effective than epinephrine
epinephrine if neededAsystoleVasopressin group 29.0%alone in the treatment of refractory
PRCTEpinephrine 20.3%cardiac arrest
(level 2, excellent)Endpoint: survival to(P=0.02)
hospital admission
AdditionalVasopressin group 25.7%
EpinephrineEpinephrine group 16.4%
(P=0.002)
Pytte et al., (2006),17 pigs had fullCoronary perfusionLabCPRThe haemodynamic effects of
Resuscitation, Norway, [18]monitoring, then 3 minpressure (CPP)29 mmHgadrenaline depend on chest
of untreated VF arrestClinicalCPRcompression quality.
Experimental studyAdrenaline administered12 mmHgPeak dose of the delivery of adrenaline
(level 6, excellent)and types of CPR given:P<0.02was significantly delayed when
simulating clinically reported CPR
Clinical quality CPRCortical cerebralLabCPRquality compared to good quality CPR
manually performedblood flow (CCBF)45% of baseline(150 s vs. 90 s)
chest compressions (30b-ClinicalCPR
38 mm depth) with a35% of baselineAdrenaline improved haemodynamics
frequencyduring good quality CPR in pigs, but
of 100 min−1 interruptedFemoral blood flowLabCPRnot with quality simulating clinically
by a 9 s break(FBF)1.2 ml/minreported CPR performance
every 15 compressionsClinicalCPR
2.5 ml/minHistorical CPR Ratio
P<0.02
LabCPR
automatic hydraulic
chest compression device
(Heartsaver 2000)
maintaining consistent
chest compressions of
45 mm depth, 100 min−1
Author, date and countryPatient groupOutcomesKey resultsComments
Study type (level of evidence)
Long et al., (2005),ILCOR worksheetRecommendationsThe use of epinephrine in cardiac arrest due to ventricular fibrillation is
Circulation, USA, [5]supported by animal studies: many in the past and 3 in the last
Hypothesis: Epinephrine5 years. (level of evidence 6).
Systematic review of(at either standard dosesIt does provide adverse consequences as well, and subsequent doses do
experimental studiesor higher doses) is a safenot appear to provide as dramatic an effect in raising coronary
(level 6, excellent)and effective adjunct toperfusion pressure (and thus chance of ROSC) as the first dose
defibrillation in cardiacHowever, due to the lack of human placebo-controlled trials,
arrests due to ventricularepinephrine is Class Indeterminate. For PEA and asystole, the use of
fibrillation (asystole also considered)epinephrine is also Class Indeterminate
Epinephrine, 1 mg IV, given every 3–5 min, is generally accepted as
useful in cardiac arrest from all rhythms although no human trials have
compared epinephrine to placebo
Cairns et al., (1998),14 Dogs had induced VFROSC– n=11 animals could notThe hemodynamic response to the first
Resuscitation, USA, [7]and were left without be resuscitateddose of EPI determines if the critical
CPR for 7.5 min– n=3 successfullyCPP needed for ROSC and survival
Experimental study resuscitatedwill occur. Repeat doses of EPI do not
(level 6, fair)CPR was then resumedappear to improve CPP to a degree to
and Epinephrine andOnly 1 animal survived afteraffect clinically meaningful measures of
countershocks were asa second dose of adrenalineoutcome, i.e. successful countershock
per guidelines from 1998and survival
Success measured asCPPIn those animals that could
return of spontaneousnot be resuscitated the
circulation for 30 minincrease in CPP after EPI
averaged only 3±2 mmHg
– Epinephrine 1 mg was
 administered whenSubsequent doses produced
 indicated and atno significant effect on CPP
 recommended time(2±4 mmHg)
 intervals
In those animals
successfully resuscitated
(n=3), the change in CPP
was 21±11 mmHg after the
first dose of EPI
Biondi-Zoccai et al., (2003),Search for studies thatROSC in humanVasopressinDid not search EMBASE
Resuscitation, Ireland, [13]compared treatment ofstudies63% (78/124)
cardiac arrest usingAdrenalineDetails of individual studies not
Meta-analysis mainlyvasopressin with either59% (68/116)presented in adequate detail
experimental studiesplacebo or adrenalineP=0.43
(level 6, fair)
2 human studies and 33ROSC in animalVasopressin
animal studies foundstudies vasopressin84% (225/268)
vs. adrenalineAdrenaline
59% (117/224)
P<0.001
ROSC in animalVasopressin
studies vasopressin93% (98/105)
vs. adrenalinePlacebo
19% (14/72)
P<0.001
Klouche et al., (2003),Twenty rats withSurvival in hoursAlpha-MNEBoth post-resuscitation myocardial
Resuscitation, USA, [8]ventricular fibrillation57±14 hfunction and survival were most
(VF) untreated for 8 minVPN 41±8 himproved after administration of the
Experimental studyand then CPR (at a rateEpinephrineselective alpha(2)-adrenergic agonist,
(level 6, fair)of 200 bpm and ventilation31±10 hintermediate after vasopressin and least
at 100 breaths per min)Controlafter epinephrine and saline placebo
15±6 h
CPR protocol differed to current
Drug treatment was with:CPP (coronaryRise to around 30 mmHg inresuscitation guidelines, as shocks
Alpha-MNE in a dose ofperfusion pressure)all drug groups.given 4 min after drug
100 μg/kg, VasopressinIn controls rise was to
in a dose of 0.4 U/kg.20 mmHg
Epinephrine in a dose of
30 μg/kg, or saline controlMyocardialPost-resuscitation
function (leftmyocardial function and
ventricularsurvival were significantly
pressure, cardiacbetter in animals treated
index)with alpha-MNE (lower
LVEDP)
Lindberg et al., (2000),18 Swedish bred pigsCoronary perfusionControlVasopressors increased coronary
Resuscitation, Sweden, [9]with full monitoring afterpressure during7±2 mmHgperfusion pressure and the likelihood
a sternotomy, monitorarrestAdrenalineof a return of spontaneous circulation,
Experimental studyinsertion and chest45±5 mmHgbut decreased end-tidal CO2
(level 6, fair)closure.Noradrenalineconcentration and induced a critical
VF arrest without CPR38±5 mmHgdeterioration in cardiac output and thus
for 1 min and 5 min ofoxygen delivery in this model of
chest compressions usingCO2 productionControlcardiopulmonary resuscitation
a chest compressorduring arrest106±15 ml/min
AdrenalineDoesn't address question directly of
Adrenaline or66±5 ml/minwhether adrenaline is good in cardiac
noradrenaline or controlNoradrenalinearrest, just elucidates details of what its
given at that stage62±6 ml/minphysiologic effects are
– Evaluation of changes inCO2 productionControl
 end-tidal CO230 min after arrest211±1 ml/min
 concentration, CPP afterAdrenaline
 injection of vasopressors233±8 ml/min
 during cardiopulmonaryNoradrenaline
 resuscitation.173±14 ml/min
 End-tidal CO2
 concentration correlates
 with pulmonary blood
 flow
Holmberg et al., (2002),A national survey of% patients whoAdrenaline was given inNeither in total nor in any subgroup
Resuscitation, Sweden, [15]ambulance organisationsreceived adrenaline42.4% of patientsdid they find results indicating
in Sweden between 1990–beneficial effects of any of these two
Retrospective cohort study1995 among 14065% patients who47.5% of patients wereinterventions
(level 4, unsatisfactory)patients with out-of-hospitalwere intubatedintubated
cardiac arrest. OfDue to the retrospective cohort design
these, resuscitation wasSurvival in patientsIndependent predictor forof the study many factors determine
attempted in 10966 caseswith ventricularadverse outcomeadministration of adrenaline including
fibrillation(OR 0.43, CI 0.27–0.66)prolonged arrest and also certain
Multivariate risk factorsambulance crews were not licenced to
for adverse outcomeSurvival in patientsIndependent predictor forgive it, therefore, little inference can be
analysedwith with a non-shockablelower survivaldrawn from these results
rhythm(OR 0.30, CI 0.07–0.82)
Behringer et al., (1998),178 adults withROSCIn 178 patients:The authors controlled for the length of
Ann Int Med, Austria,non-traumatic,a) n=151 (84%)resuscitation as a confounder, but
[16]normothermic VF cardiac spontaneous circulationdespite this, many other confounders
arrest brought to the was restoredmight have caused this result. i.e.
Retrospective cohort studyemergency departmentasystolic patients tend to receive more
(level 4, poor)with an unsuccessfulNeurologic outcomeb) n=63 (42%) hadadrenaline as less time is spent on
initial defibrillationassessed by favourable neurologicdefibrillation, and asystole is known to
cerebral recovery.have a poorer outcome compared to
The median cumulativeperformance Patients with an unfavourableVF
epinephrine dosecategory (CPC) CPC received a significantly
administered was 4 mgwithin 6 months higher cumulative dose of
(range, 0–50 mg)after cardiac arrest. epinephrine than did
A CPC of 1 or 2 patients with a favourable
was defined as CPC (4 mg compared with
favourable 1 mg)
Vandycke et al., (2000),5 randomised trialsROSCOdd ratio favouredNo statistically significant beneficial
Resuscitation, Belgium, [12]where high dose ofHigh-dose adrenalineeffect of high and/or escalating doses of
adrenaline was compared1.14 (1.02–1.27)epinephrine in comparison with
Meta-analysis ofvs. standard dosestandard dose of epinephrine in
randomised trialsepinephrine in cardiacSurvival to hospitalNo differencesurvival
(level 1, excellent)arrest identified from aadmission1.03 (0.86–1.24)
literature search fromThe authors do not describe whether
1988–1998Hospital dischargeOdd ratio was against highthe 5 studies used high-dose adrenaline
dose adrenalineas a first dose or only after one dose
Standard dose was0.74 (0.53–1.03)had failed
usually 1 mg adrenaline
Did not distinguish between rhythmns
High-dose adrenaline was
from 5 to 15 mg
Chen et al., (2007),47 rabbits with cardiacCPP in adrenaline4–36 mmHg at peakEpinephrine, but not vasopressin,
Am J Emerg Med, China,arrest induced bygroupvalue, P=0.000increases survival rates in this adult
[10]clamping the endotrachealrabbit asphyxia model
tube that did not recoverCPP in vasopressin9–18 mmHg at peak,
Experimental studywith CPRgroupvalue, P=0.20
(level 6, good)
Randomised toROSC after drugEpinephrine 13 of 24
epinephrine groupadministrationVasopressin 2 of 23
(n=24) and vasopressinP<0.01
group (n=23)
Ristagno et al., (2007),10 Yorkshire-crossCerebral corticalPost resuscitationCortical microcirculatory blood flow
Crit Care Med,domestic pigs hadmicrocirculatorymicrovascular flows andwas markedly reduced after
USA, [11]untreated VF arrest forblood flow andPbO2 were greater and PbCO2epinephrine, resulting in a greater
3 mincortical tissue PO2less after vasopressin whenseverity of brain ischemia after the
Experimental studyand PCO2 ascompared with epinephrineROSC in contrast to the more benign
(level 6, good)Then randomized toindicators ofA significantly greatereffects of vasopressin
receive central venouscortical tissuenumber of cortical
injections ofischaemiamicrovessels were perfusedPerformed 3 sequential shocks 4 min
epinephrine (30 μg/kg) orafter vasopressinafter arrest and further shocks at 1 min
vasopressin (0.4 units/kg)intervals. Not current ACLS algorithm
at 1 min after the start ofCPP at 4 min ofVasopressin 20±2 mmHg
cardiopulmonaryCPRAdrenaline 21±6 mmHg
resuscitation using aResuscitation successful in
thumperROSCall animals
Wenzel et al., for the1186 patients with an outHospital admissionVasopressin group 46.2%The effects of vasopressin were similar
European Resuscitationof hospital arrest werein patients withEpinephrine group 43.0%to those of epinephrine in the
Council Vasopressor duringrandomly assigned to:ventricular(P=0.48)management of ventricular fibrillation
Cardiopulmonary2 doses of vasopressinfibrillation,and pulseless electrical activity, but
Resuscitation Study Group(40 IU) or 1 dose ofpulseless electricalVasopressin group 33.7%vasopressin was superior to
(2004), New Englepinephrine (1 mg).activityEpinephrine group 30.5%epinephrine in patients with asystole.
J Med, Austria,Followed by additional(P=0.65)Vasopressin followed by epinephrine
[17]treatment withmay be more effective than epinephrine
epinephrine if neededAsystoleVasopressin group 29.0%alone in the treatment of refractory
PRCTEpinephrine 20.3%cardiac arrest
(level 2, excellent)Endpoint: survival to(P=0.02)
hospital admission
AdditionalVasopressin group 25.7%
EpinephrineEpinephrine group 16.4%
(P=0.002)
Pytte et al., (2006),17 pigs had fullCoronary perfusionLabCPRThe haemodynamic effects of
Resuscitation, Norway, [18]monitoring, then 3 minpressure (CPP)29 mmHgadrenaline depend on chest
of untreated VF arrestClinicalCPRcompression quality.
Experimental studyAdrenaline administered12 mmHgPeak dose of the delivery of adrenaline
(level 6, excellent)and types of CPR given:P<0.02was significantly delayed when
simulating clinically reported CPR
Clinical quality CPRCortical cerebralLabCPRquality compared to good quality CPR
manually performedblood flow (CCBF)45% of baseline(150 s vs. 90 s)
chest compressions (30b-ClinicalCPR
38 mm depth) with a35% of baselineAdrenaline improved haemodynamics
frequencyduring good quality CPR in pigs, but
of 100 min−1 interruptedFemoral blood flowLabCPRnot with quality simulating clinically
by a 9 s break(FBF)1.2 ml/minreported CPR performance
every 15 compressionsClinicalCPR
2.5 ml/minHistorical CPR Ratio
P<0.02
LabCPR
automatic hydraulic
chest compression device
(Heartsaver 2000)
maintaining consistent
chest compressions of
45 mm depth, 100 min−1

6. Results

The 2005 European Resuscitation Council Guidelines (ERC [3]) and the American Heart Association guidelines [4] state that for patients suffering a cardiac arrest with PEA or asystole, 1 mg of adrenaline should be given as soon as intravascular access is achieved and for every 3–5 min or every other loop of the algorithm. For VF/VT, adrenaline should be given after the second failed shock. However, the ERC state that ‘despite the widespread use of adrenaline during resuscitation, and several studies involving vasopressin, there is no placebo controlled study that shows that the routine use of any vasopressor at any stage during human cardiac arrest increases survival to hospital discharge. Current evidence is insufficient to support or refute the routine use of any particular drug or sequence of drugs. Despite the lack of human data, the use of adrenaline is still recommended, based largely on animal data.’ The evidence that they base this recommendation on are the worksheets produced by Long and Paradis [5] and Wenzel [6]. Long concludes that adrenaline use is supported by recent animal studies but that no human studies compare it to placebo. Also, they note that it produces adverse consequences and also subsequent doses are less effective. They give the level of evidence for adrenaline for VF or PEA/asystole as ‘indeterminate’ which is defined as ‘minimal evidence available, results inconsistent and contradictory and results not compelling

Cairns and Niemann [7] studied 14 dogs who had VF for 7.5 min prior to resuscitation attempts. Three dogs survived and adrenaline increased their coronary perfusion pressure (CPP) by 21±11 mmHg. However, in the remainder, adrenaline only increased the CPP by 3±2 mmHg. Also subsequent doses had minimal effect on CPP.

Klouche et al. [8] studied 20 rats using differing resuscitative drugs after VF. They found that adrenaline impaired post-resuscitation myocardial function more than vasopressin and a selective alpha-agonist, and this function was similar to saline-placebo controls. However, survival was superior with adrenaline than with controls.

Lindberg et al. [9] in 18 pigs who had a sternotomy and chest closure, and then VF, showed that while either adrenaline or noradrenaline increased CPP during the arrest up to 45 mmHg compared to only 7 mmHg for controls, it significantly impaired cardiac output and oxygen delivery after successful resuscitation.

Chen et al. [10], in 47 rabbits arrested after ET-tube clamping, found that adrenaline increased CPP from 4 to 38 mmHg whereas vasopressin failed to do this. Half the rabbits given adrenaline survived compared to 10% of the vasopressin group.

Ristagno et al. [11] showed significantly worse cerebral blood flows and oxygenation with adrenaline compared to vasopressin in 10 pigs after cardiac arrest.

Vandycke and Martens [12] performed a meta-analysis of five RCTs of high-dose adrenaline vs. standard dose adrenaline. They found a superior odds of return of spontaneous circulation but no difference to hospital admission and a poorer outcome to hospital discharge with higher doses of adrenaline. Biondi-Zoccai et al. [13] performed a meta-analysis of vasopressin vs. adrenaline, finding only two human studies but demonstrating superiority of vasopressin across 33 animal studies. Zhong and Dorian [14] performed a review of adrenaline and vasopressin in cardiac arrest stating that adrenaline had many adverse effects post-resuscitation including myocardial dysfunction, worsening arrhythmias and increased myocardial oxygen demand and that human studies in this area were urgently needed.

Holmberg et al. [15] in a survey of 11,000 patients in patient-care who had arrested out-of-hospital looked at risk factors for adverse survival. They found that adrenaline was a predictor of adverse outcome for asystolic and VF arrests. Behringer et al. [16] reported that in 178 patients who survived an out-of-hospital arrest that adrenaline cumulative dose was much higher in those patients with a poor neurological outcome. The best human study in this area compared vasopressin with adrenaline but had no placebo group. Wenzel et al. [17] randomized over 1000 patients who arrested out-of-hospital to vasopressin or adrenaline. There was no difference in VF arrests but asystole and combined vasopressin and adrenaline showed better survival to hospital admission.

Pytte et al. [18] was struck by the fact that the benefit of adrenaline seen in experimental studies had not translated into clinical studies and hypothesised that this may be due to the difference between clinical CPR and the CPR obtained in a laboratory by hydraulic-compression devices. They compared these types of CPR and found that while labCPR produced significant haemodynamic effects with adrenaline, no haemodynamic increases were seen with clinicalCPR. Also the peak adrenaline level took 2.5 min to achieve in the clinicalCPR group after a single administration.

7. Clinical bottom line

The European Resuscitation Council and the American Heart Association both recommend 1 mg of adrenaline as soon as pulseless electrical activity or asystole is identified or after the second failed shock if the rhythm is VF/pulseless VT. However, they acknowledge that the evidence behind this recommendation is lacking and based entirely on animal studies which have as yet not been successfully replicated in human studies and thus the evidence for this recommendation is ‘indeterminate’. Thus, in the particular situation of a patient who arrests shortly after cardiac surgery where the chance of restoring sinus rhythm either by defibrillation or by an emergency re-sternotomy is high, and where adrenaline could in this situation be highly dangerous once sinus rhythm is restored, we recommend that 1 mg of adrenaline forms no part of the resuscitation protocol for patients after cardiac surgery.

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