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Myrto Tsagkataki, Adrian Levine, Tim Strang, Joel Dunning, Should adrenaline be routinely used by the resuscitation team if a patient suffers a cardiac arrest shortly after cardiac surgery?, Interactive CardioVascular and Thoracic Surgery, Volume 7, Issue 3, June 2008, Pages 457–462, https://doi.org/10.1510/icvts.2007.171447
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Summary
A best evidence topic in cardiac surgery was written according to a structured protocol. The question addressed was whether adrenaline might be a useful addition to a protocol for the management of cardiac arrests for patients shortly after cardiac surgery. Altogether 889 papers were found using the reported search, of which 16 represented the best evidence to answer the clinical question. The authors, journal, date and country of publication, patient group studied, study type, relevant outcomes and results of these papers are tabulated. The quality and level of evidence was assessed using the International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation guideline recommendations. We conclude that the European Resuscitation Council and the American Heart Association both recommend 1 mg of adrenaline as soon as pulseless electrical activity or asystole is identified or after the second failed shock if the rhythm is VF/pulseless VT. However, they acknowledge that the evidence behind this recommendation is lacking and based entirely on animal studies which have as yet not been successfully replicated in human studies to show a benefit of survival to hospital discharge. They acknowledge that the current evidence is insufficient to support or refute the use of adrenaline in arrests and the International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation grade the recommendation to give adrenaline in cardiac arrests as ‘indeterminate’. Thus, in the particular situation of a patient who arrests shortly after cardiac surgery where the chance of restoring sinus rhythm either by defibrillation or by an emergency re-sternotomy is high, and where adrenaline could in this situation be highly dangerous once sinus rhythm is restored, we recommend that 1 mg of adrenaline forms no part of the resuscitation protocol for patients who arrest after cardiac surgery.
1. Introduction
A best evidence topic was constructed according to a structured protocol. This is fully described in the ICVTS [1]. The quality of each study was assessed using the International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation 2005 protocol [2].
2. Three-part question
In [patients who have arrested shortly after cardiac surgery] does [the routine administration of 1 mg of adrenaline] improve [survival]?
3. Clinical scenario
A 72-year-old patient suffers a cardiac arrest 1 h after triple coronary artery bypass graft. The rhythm is pulseless electrical activity (PEA). The nursing staff commence cardiac massage and follow the European Resuscitation Council guideline which is to give 1 mg of adrenaline immediately for pulseless electrical activity (PEA) or asystole. The surgeon is rapidly available and performs an emergency resternotomy within 3 min. On reopening there is a considerable gush of blood and a tamponade is relieved. Sinus rhythm returns but unfortunately the blood pressure rapidly rises to 250/150 due to the adrenaline, and several of the proximal graft anastomosis sutures cut through. After redoing both top-ends and oversewing the aortic and venous cannulation sites, you wonder what possible benefit adrenaline was in that arrest scenario.
4. Search strategy
Medline-1950 to Nov-2007 using OVID interface.
[adrenaline.mp OR epinephrine.mp OR exp Epinephrine/] AND [exp Resuscitation/OR resuscitation.mp OR exp Cardiopulmonary resuscitation/] AND [exp survival/OR survival.mp OR exp Patient discharge/OR discharge.mp].
Embase-1980 to Nov-2007 using the OVID interface. Search repeated replacing keywords epinephrine with adrenaline, patient discharge with hospital discharge, and cardiopulmonary resuscitation with resuscitation.
Cochrane DSR, ACP journal club and DARE searched using the term ‘Adrenaline’.
5. Search outcome
Three hundred and twenty-eight papers were found in MEDLINE, 499 in EMBASE and 62 in the Cochrane collection using the reported search. From these, 16 papers were identified that provided the best evidence to answer the question. These are presented in Table 1 .
Author, date and country | Patient group | Outcomes | Key results | Comments |
Study type (level of evidence) | ||||
Long et al., (2005), | ILCOR worksheet | Recommendations | The use of epinephrine in cardiac arrest due to ventricular fibrillation is | |
Circulation, USA, [5] | supported by animal studies: many in the past and 3 in the last | |||
Hypothesis: Epinephrine | 5 years. (level of evidence 6). | |||
Systematic review of | (at either standard doses | It does provide adverse consequences as well, and subsequent doses do | ||
experimental studies | or higher doses) is a safe | not appear to provide as dramatic an effect in raising coronary | ||
(level 6, excellent) | and effective adjunct to | perfusion pressure (and thus chance of ROSC) as the first dose | ||
defibrillation in cardiac | However, due to the lack of human placebo-controlled trials, | |||
arrests due to ventricular | epinephrine is Class Indeterminate. For PEA and asystole, the use of | |||
fibrillation (asystole also considered) | epinephrine is also Class Indeterminate | |||
Epinephrine, 1 mg IV, given every 3–5 min, is generally accepted as | ||||
useful in cardiac arrest from all rhythms although no human trials have | ||||
compared epinephrine to placebo | ||||
Cairns et al., (1998), | 14 Dogs had induced VF | ROSC | – n=11 animals could not | The hemodynamic response to the first |
Resuscitation, USA, [7] | and were left without | be resuscitated | dose of EPI determines if the critical | |
CPR for 7.5 min | – n=3 successfully | CPP needed for ROSC and survival | ||
Experimental study | resuscitated | will occur. Repeat doses of EPI do not | ||
(level 6, fair) | CPR was then resumed | appear to improve CPP to a degree to | ||
and Epinephrine and | Only 1 animal survived after | affect clinically meaningful measures of | ||
countershocks were as | a second dose of adrenaline | outcome, i.e. successful countershock | ||
per guidelines from 1998 | and survival | |||
Success measured as | CPP | In those animals that could | ||
return of spontaneous | not be resuscitated the | |||
circulation for 30 min | increase in CPP after EPI | |||
averaged only 3±2 mmHg | ||||
– Epinephrine 1 mg was | ||||
administered when | Subsequent doses produced | |||
indicated and at | no significant effect on CPP | |||
recommended time | (2±4 mmHg) | |||
intervals | ||||
In those animals | ||||
successfully resuscitated | ||||
(n=3), the change in CPP | ||||
was 21±11 mmHg after the | ||||
first dose of EPI | ||||
Biondi-Zoccai et al., (2003), | Search for studies that | ROSC in human | Vasopressin | Did not search EMBASE |
Resuscitation, Ireland, [13] | compared treatment of | studies | 63% (78/124) | |
cardiac arrest using | Adrenaline | Details of individual studies not | ||
Meta-analysis mainly | vasopressin with either | 59% (68/116) | presented in adequate detail | |
experimental studies | placebo or adrenaline | P=0.43 | ||
(level 6, fair) | ||||
2 human studies and 33 | ROSC in animal | Vasopressin | ||
animal studies found | studies vasopressin | 84% (225/268) | ||
vs. adrenaline | Adrenaline | |||
59% (117/224) | ||||
P<0.001 | ||||
ROSC in animal | Vasopressin | |||
studies vasopressin | 93% (98/105) | |||
vs. adrenaline | Placebo | |||
19% (14/72) | ||||
P<0.001 | ||||
Klouche et al., (2003), | Twenty rats with | Survival in hours | Alpha-MNE | Both post-resuscitation myocardial |
Resuscitation, USA, [8] | ventricular fibrillation | 57±14 h | function and survival were most | |
(VF) untreated for 8 min | VPN 41±8 h | improved after administration of the | ||
Experimental study | and then CPR (at a rate | Epinephrine | selective alpha(2)-adrenergic agonist, | |
(level 6, fair) | of 200 bpm and ventilation | 31±10 h | intermediate after vasopressin and least | |
at 100 breaths per min) | Control | after epinephrine and saline placebo | ||
15±6 h | ||||
CPR protocol differed to current | ||||
Drug treatment was with: | CPP (coronary | Rise to around 30 mmHg in | resuscitation guidelines, as shocks | |
Alpha-MNE in a dose of | perfusion pressure) | all drug groups. | given 4 min after drug | |
100 μg/kg, Vasopressin | In controls rise was to | |||
in a dose of 0.4 U/kg. | 20 mmHg | |||
Epinephrine in a dose of | ||||
30 μg/kg, or saline control | Myocardial | Post-resuscitation | ||
function (left | myocardial function and | |||
ventricular | survival were significantly | |||
pressure, cardiac | better in animals treated | |||
index) | with alpha-MNE (lower | |||
LVEDP) | ||||
Lindberg et al., (2000), | 18 Swedish bred pigs | Coronary perfusion | Control | Vasopressors increased coronary |
Resuscitation, Sweden, [9] | with full monitoring after | pressure during | 7±2 mmHg | perfusion pressure and the likelihood |
a sternotomy, monitor | arrest | Adrenaline | of a return of spontaneous circulation, | |
Experimental study | insertion and chest | 45±5 mmHg | but decreased end-tidal CO2 | |
(level 6, fair) | closure. | Noradrenaline | concentration and induced a critical | |
VF arrest without CPR | 38±5 mmHg | deterioration in cardiac output and thus | ||
for 1 min and 5 min of | oxygen delivery in this model of | |||
chest compressions using | CO2 production | Control | cardiopulmonary resuscitation | |
a chest compressor | during arrest | 106±15 ml/min | ||
Adrenaline | Doesn't address question directly of | |||
Adrenaline or | 66±5 ml/min | whether adrenaline is good in cardiac | ||
noradrenaline or control | Noradrenaline | arrest, just elucidates details of what its | ||
given at that stage | 62±6 ml/min | physiologic effects are | ||
– Evaluation of changes in | CO2 production | Control | ||
end-tidal CO2 | 30 min after arrest | 211±1 ml/min | ||
concentration, CPP after | Adrenaline | |||
injection of vasopressors | 233±8 ml/min | |||
during cardiopulmonary | Noradrenaline | |||
resuscitation. | 173±14 ml/min | |||
End-tidal CO2 | ||||
concentration correlates | ||||
with pulmonary blood | ||||
flow | ||||
Holmberg et al., (2002), | A national survey of | % patients who | Adrenaline was given in | Neither in total nor in any subgroup |
Resuscitation, Sweden, [15] | ambulance organisations | received adrenaline | 42.4% of patients | did they find results indicating |
in Sweden between 1990– | beneficial effects of any of these two | |||
Retrospective cohort study | 1995 among 14065 | % patients who | 47.5% of patients were | interventions |
(level 4, unsatisfactory) | patients with out-of-hospital | were intubated | intubated | |
cardiac arrest. Of | Due to the retrospective cohort design | |||
these, resuscitation was | Survival in patients | Independent predictor for | of the study many factors determine | |
attempted in 10966 cases | with ventricular | adverse outcome | administration of adrenaline including | |
fibrillation | (OR 0.43, CI 0.27–0.66) | prolonged arrest and also certain | ||
Multivariate risk factors | ambulance crews were not licenced to | |||
for adverse outcome | Survival in patients | Independent predictor for | give it, therefore, little inference can be | |
analysed | with with a non-shockable | lower survival | drawn from these results | |
rhythm | (OR 0.30, CI 0.07–0.82) | |||
Behringer et al., (1998), | 178 adults with | ROSC | In 178 patients: | The authors controlled for the length of |
Ann Int Med, Austria, | non-traumatic, | a) n=151 (84%) | resuscitation as a confounder, but | |
[16] | normothermic VF cardiac | spontaneous circulation | despite this, many other confounders | |
arrest brought to the | was restored | might have caused this result. i.e. | ||
Retrospective cohort study | emergency department | asystolic patients tend to receive more | ||
(level 4, poor) | with an unsuccessful | Neurologic outcome | b) n=63 (42%) had | adrenaline as less time is spent on |
initial defibrillation | assessed by | favourable neurologic | defibrillation, and asystole is known to | |
cerebral | recovery. | have a poorer outcome compared to | ||
The median cumulative | performance | Patients with an unfavourable | VF | |
epinephrine dose | category (CPC) | CPC received a significantly | ||
administered was 4 mg | within 6 months | higher cumulative dose of | ||
(range, 0–50 mg) | after cardiac arrest. | epinephrine than did | ||
A CPC of 1 or 2 | patients with a favourable | |||
was defined as | CPC (4 mg compared with | |||
favourable | 1 mg) | |||
Vandycke et al., (2000), | 5 randomised trials | ROSC | Odd ratio favoured | No statistically significant beneficial |
Resuscitation, Belgium, [12] | where high dose of | High-dose adrenaline | effect of high and/or escalating doses of | |
adrenaline was compared | 1.14 (1.02–1.27) | epinephrine in comparison with | ||
Meta-analysis of | vs. standard dose | standard dose of epinephrine in | ||
randomised trials | epinephrine in cardiac | Survival to hospital | No difference | survival |
(level 1, excellent) | arrest identified from a | admission | 1.03 (0.86–1.24) | |
literature search from | The authors do not describe whether | |||
1988–1998 | Hospital discharge | Odd ratio was against high | the 5 studies used high-dose adrenaline | |
dose adrenaline | as a first dose or only after one dose | |||
Standard dose was | 0.74 (0.53–1.03) | had failed | ||
usually 1 mg adrenaline | ||||
Did not distinguish between rhythmns | ||||
High-dose adrenaline was | ||||
from 5 to 15 mg | ||||
Chen et al., (2007), | 47 rabbits with cardiac | CPP in adrenaline | 4–36 mmHg at peak | Epinephrine, but not vasopressin, |
Am J Emerg Med, China, | arrest induced by | group | value, P=0.000 | increases survival rates in this adult |
[10] | clamping the endotracheal | rabbit asphyxia model | ||
tube that did not recover | CPP in vasopressin | 9–18 mmHg at peak, | ||
Experimental study | with CPR | group | value, P=0.20 | |
(level 6, good) | ||||
Randomised to | ROSC after drug | Epinephrine 13 of 24 | ||
epinephrine group | administration | Vasopressin 2 of 23 | ||
(n=24) and vasopressin | P<0.01 | |||
group (n=23) | ||||
Ristagno et al., (2007), | 10 Yorkshire-cross | Cerebral cortical | Post resuscitation | Cortical microcirculatory blood flow |
Crit Care Med, | domestic pigs had | microcirculatory | microvascular flows and | was markedly reduced after |
USA, [11] | untreated VF arrest for | blood flow and | PbO2 were greater and PbCO2 | epinephrine, resulting in a greater |
3 min | cortical tissue PO2 | less after vasopressin when | severity of brain ischemia after the | |
Experimental study | and PCO2 as | compared with epinephrine | ROSC in contrast to the more benign | |
(level 6, good) | Then randomized to | indicators of | A significantly greater | effects of vasopressin |
receive central venous | cortical tissue | number of cortical | ||
injections of | ischaemia | microvessels were perfused | Performed 3 sequential shocks 4 min | |
epinephrine (30 μg/kg) or | after vasopressin | after arrest and further shocks at 1 min | ||
vasopressin (0.4 units/kg) | intervals. Not current ACLS algorithm | |||
at 1 min after the start of | CPP at 4 min of | Vasopressin 20±2 mmHg | ||
cardiopulmonary | CPR | Adrenaline 21±6 mmHg | ||
resuscitation using a | Resuscitation successful in | |||
thumper | ROSC | all animals | ||
Wenzel et al., for the | 1186 patients with an out | Hospital admission | Vasopressin group 46.2% | The effects of vasopressin were similar |
European Resuscitation | of hospital arrest were | in patients with | Epinephrine group 43.0% | to those of epinephrine in the |
Council Vasopressor during | randomly assigned to: | ventricular | (P=0.48) | management of ventricular fibrillation |
Cardiopulmonary | 2 doses of vasopressin | fibrillation, | and pulseless electrical activity, but | |
Resuscitation Study Group | (40 IU) or 1 dose of | pulseless electrical | Vasopressin group 33.7% | vasopressin was superior to |
(2004), New Engl | epinephrine (1 mg). | activity | Epinephrine group 30.5% | epinephrine in patients with asystole. |
J Med, Austria, | Followed by additional | (P=0.65) | Vasopressin followed by epinephrine | |
[17] | treatment with | may be more effective than epinephrine | ||
epinephrine if needed | Asystole | Vasopressin group 29.0% | alone in the treatment of refractory | |
PRCT | Epinephrine 20.3% | cardiac arrest | ||
(level 2, excellent) | Endpoint: survival to | (P=0.02) | ||
hospital admission | ||||
Additional | Vasopressin group 25.7% | |||
Epinephrine | Epinephrine group 16.4% | |||
(P=0.002) | ||||
Pytte et al., (2006), | 17 pigs had full | Coronary perfusion | LabCPR | The haemodynamic effects of |
Resuscitation, Norway, [18] | monitoring, then 3 min | pressure (CPP) | 29 mmHg | adrenaline depend on chest |
of untreated VF arrest | ClinicalCPR | compression quality. | ||
Experimental study | Adrenaline administered | 12 mmHg | Peak dose of the delivery of adrenaline | |
(level 6, excellent) | and types of CPR given: | P<0.02 | was significantly delayed when | |
simulating clinically reported CPR | ||||
Clinical quality CPR | Cortical cerebral | LabCPR | quality compared to good quality CPR | |
manually performed | blood flow (CCBF) | 45% of baseline | (150 s vs. 90 s) | |
chest compressions (30b- | ClinicalCPR | |||
38 mm depth) with a | 35% of baseline | Adrenaline improved haemodynamics | ||
frequency | during good quality CPR in pigs, but | |||
of 100 min−1 interrupted | Femoral blood flow | LabCPR | not with quality simulating clinically | |
by a 9 s break | (FBF) | 1.2 ml/min | reported CPR performance | |
every 15 compressions | ClinicalCPR | |||
2.5 ml/min | Historical CPR Ratio | |||
P<0.02 | ||||
LabCPR | ||||
automatic hydraulic | ||||
chest compression device | ||||
(Heartsaver 2000) | ||||
maintaining consistent | ||||
chest compressions of | ||||
45 mm depth, 100 min−1 |
Author, date and country | Patient group | Outcomes | Key results | Comments |
Study type (level of evidence) | ||||
Long et al., (2005), | ILCOR worksheet | Recommendations | The use of epinephrine in cardiac arrest due to ventricular fibrillation is | |
Circulation, USA, [5] | supported by animal studies: many in the past and 3 in the last | |||
Hypothesis: Epinephrine | 5 years. (level of evidence 6). | |||
Systematic review of | (at either standard doses | It does provide adverse consequences as well, and subsequent doses do | ||
experimental studies | or higher doses) is a safe | not appear to provide as dramatic an effect in raising coronary | ||
(level 6, excellent) | and effective adjunct to | perfusion pressure (and thus chance of ROSC) as the first dose | ||
defibrillation in cardiac | However, due to the lack of human placebo-controlled trials, | |||
arrests due to ventricular | epinephrine is Class Indeterminate. For PEA and asystole, the use of | |||
fibrillation (asystole also considered) | epinephrine is also Class Indeterminate | |||
Epinephrine, 1 mg IV, given every 3–5 min, is generally accepted as | ||||
useful in cardiac arrest from all rhythms although no human trials have | ||||
compared epinephrine to placebo | ||||
Cairns et al., (1998), | 14 Dogs had induced VF | ROSC | – n=11 animals could not | The hemodynamic response to the first |
Resuscitation, USA, [7] | and were left without | be resuscitated | dose of EPI determines if the critical | |
CPR for 7.5 min | – n=3 successfully | CPP needed for ROSC and survival | ||
Experimental study | resuscitated | will occur. Repeat doses of EPI do not | ||
(level 6, fair) | CPR was then resumed | appear to improve CPP to a degree to | ||
and Epinephrine and | Only 1 animal survived after | affect clinically meaningful measures of | ||
countershocks were as | a second dose of adrenaline | outcome, i.e. successful countershock | ||
per guidelines from 1998 | and survival | |||
Success measured as | CPP | In those animals that could | ||
return of spontaneous | not be resuscitated the | |||
circulation for 30 min | increase in CPP after EPI | |||
averaged only 3±2 mmHg | ||||
– Epinephrine 1 mg was | ||||
administered when | Subsequent doses produced | |||
indicated and at | no significant effect on CPP | |||
recommended time | (2±4 mmHg) | |||
intervals | ||||
In those animals | ||||
successfully resuscitated | ||||
(n=3), the change in CPP | ||||
was 21±11 mmHg after the | ||||
first dose of EPI | ||||
Biondi-Zoccai et al., (2003), | Search for studies that | ROSC in human | Vasopressin | Did not search EMBASE |
Resuscitation, Ireland, [13] | compared treatment of | studies | 63% (78/124) | |
cardiac arrest using | Adrenaline | Details of individual studies not | ||
Meta-analysis mainly | vasopressin with either | 59% (68/116) | presented in adequate detail | |
experimental studies | placebo or adrenaline | P=0.43 | ||
(level 6, fair) | ||||
2 human studies and 33 | ROSC in animal | Vasopressin | ||
animal studies found | studies vasopressin | 84% (225/268) | ||
vs. adrenaline | Adrenaline | |||
59% (117/224) | ||||
P<0.001 | ||||
ROSC in animal | Vasopressin | |||
studies vasopressin | 93% (98/105) | |||
vs. adrenaline | Placebo | |||
19% (14/72) | ||||
P<0.001 | ||||
Klouche et al., (2003), | Twenty rats with | Survival in hours | Alpha-MNE | Both post-resuscitation myocardial |
Resuscitation, USA, [8] | ventricular fibrillation | 57±14 h | function and survival were most | |
(VF) untreated for 8 min | VPN 41±8 h | improved after administration of the | ||
Experimental study | and then CPR (at a rate | Epinephrine | selective alpha(2)-adrenergic agonist, | |
(level 6, fair) | of 200 bpm and ventilation | 31±10 h | intermediate after vasopressin and least | |
at 100 breaths per min) | Control | after epinephrine and saline placebo | ||
15±6 h | ||||
CPR protocol differed to current | ||||
Drug treatment was with: | CPP (coronary | Rise to around 30 mmHg in | resuscitation guidelines, as shocks | |
Alpha-MNE in a dose of | perfusion pressure) | all drug groups. | given 4 min after drug | |
100 μg/kg, Vasopressin | In controls rise was to | |||
in a dose of 0.4 U/kg. | 20 mmHg | |||
Epinephrine in a dose of | ||||
30 μg/kg, or saline control | Myocardial | Post-resuscitation | ||
function (left | myocardial function and | |||
ventricular | survival were significantly | |||
pressure, cardiac | better in animals treated | |||
index) | with alpha-MNE (lower | |||
LVEDP) | ||||
Lindberg et al., (2000), | 18 Swedish bred pigs | Coronary perfusion | Control | Vasopressors increased coronary |
Resuscitation, Sweden, [9] | with full monitoring after | pressure during | 7±2 mmHg | perfusion pressure and the likelihood |
a sternotomy, monitor | arrest | Adrenaline | of a return of spontaneous circulation, | |
Experimental study | insertion and chest | 45±5 mmHg | but decreased end-tidal CO2 | |
(level 6, fair) | closure. | Noradrenaline | concentration and induced a critical | |
VF arrest without CPR | 38±5 mmHg | deterioration in cardiac output and thus | ||
for 1 min and 5 min of | oxygen delivery in this model of | |||
chest compressions using | CO2 production | Control | cardiopulmonary resuscitation | |
a chest compressor | during arrest | 106±15 ml/min | ||
Adrenaline | Doesn't address question directly of | |||
Adrenaline or | 66±5 ml/min | whether adrenaline is good in cardiac | ||
noradrenaline or control | Noradrenaline | arrest, just elucidates details of what its | ||
given at that stage | 62±6 ml/min | physiologic effects are | ||
– Evaluation of changes in | CO2 production | Control | ||
end-tidal CO2 | 30 min after arrest | 211±1 ml/min | ||
concentration, CPP after | Adrenaline | |||
injection of vasopressors | 233±8 ml/min | |||
during cardiopulmonary | Noradrenaline | |||
resuscitation. | 173±14 ml/min | |||
End-tidal CO2 | ||||
concentration correlates | ||||
with pulmonary blood | ||||
flow | ||||
Holmberg et al., (2002), | A national survey of | % patients who | Adrenaline was given in | Neither in total nor in any subgroup |
Resuscitation, Sweden, [15] | ambulance organisations | received adrenaline | 42.4% of patients | did they find results indicating |
in Sweden between 1990– | beneficial effects of any of these two | |||
Retrospective cohort study | 1995 among 14065 | % patients who | 47.5% of patients were | interventions |
(level 4, unsatisfactory) | patients with out-of-hospital | were intubated | intubated | |
cardiac arrest. Of | Due to the retrospective cohort design | |||
these, resuscitation was | Survival in patients | Independent predictor for | of the study many factors determine | |
attempted in 10966 cases | with ventricular | adverse outcome | administration of adrenaline including | |
fibrillation | (OR 0.43, CI 0.27–0.66) | prolonged arrest and also certain | ||
Multivariate risk factors | ambulance crews were not licenced to | |||
for adverse outcome | Survival in patients | Independent predictor for | give it, therefore, little inference can be | |
analysed | with with a non-shockable | lower survival | drawn from these results | |
rhythm | (OR 0.30, CI 0.07–0.82) | |||
Behringer et al., (1998), | 178 adults with | ROSC | In 178 patients: | The authors controlled for the length of |
Ann Int Med, Austria, | non-traumatic, | a) n=151 (84%) | resuscitation as a confounder, but | |
[16] | normothermic VF cardiac | spontaneous circulation | despite this, many other confounders | |
arrest brought to the | was restored | might have caused this result. i.e. | ||
Retrospective cohort study | emergency department | asystolic patients tend to receive more | ||
(level 4, poor) | with an unsuccessful | Neurologic outcome | b) n=63 (42%) had | adrenaline as less time is spent on |
initial defibrillation | assessed by | favourable neurologic | defibrillation, and asystole is known to | |
cerebral | recovery. | have a poorer outcome compared to | ||
The median cumulative | performance | Patients with an unfavourable | VF | |
epinephrine dose | category (CPC) | CPC received a significantly | ||
administered was 4 mg | within 6 months | higher cumulative dose of | ||
(range, 0–50 mg) | after cardiac arrest. | epinephrine than did | ||
A CPC of 1 or 2 | patients with a favourable | |||
was defined as | CPC (4 mg compared with | |||
favourable | 1 mg) | |||
Vandycke et al., (2000), | 5 randomised trials | ROSC | Odd ratio favoured | No statistically significant beneficial |
Resuscitation, Belgium, [12] | where high dose of | High-dose adrenaline | effect of high and/or escalating doses of | |
adrenaline was compared | 1.14 (1.02–1.27) | epinephrine in comparison with | ||
Meta-analysis of | vs. standard dose | standard dose of epinephrine in | ||
randomised trials | epinephrine in cardiac | Survival to hospital | No difference | survival |
(level 1, excellent) | arrest identified from a | admission | 1.03 (0.86–1.24) | |
literature search from | The authors do not describe whether | |||
1988–1998 | Hospital discharge | Odd ratio was against high | the 5 studies used high-dose adrenaline | |
dose adrenaline | as a first dose or only after one dose | |||
Standard dose was | 0.74 (0.53–1.03) | had failed | ||
usually 1 mg adrenaline | ||||
Did not distinguish between rhythmns | ||||
High-dose adrenaline was | ||||
from 5 to 15 mg | ||||
Chen et al., (2007), | 47 rabbits with cardiac | CPP in adrenaline | 4–36 mmHg at peak | Epinephrine, but not vasopressin, |
Am J Emerg Med, China, | arrest induced by | group | value, P=0.000 | increases survival rates in this adult |
[10] | clamping the endotracheal | rabbit asphyxia model | ||
tube that did not recover | CPP in vasopressin | 9–18 mmHg at peak, | ||
Experimental study | with CPR | group | value, P=0.20 | |
(level 6, good) | ||||
Randomised to | ROSC after drug | Epinephrine 13 of 24 | ||
epinephrine group | administration | Vasopressin 2 of 23 | ||
(n=24) and vasopressin | P<0.01 | |||
group (n=23) | ||||
Ristagno et al., (2007), | 10 Yorkshire-cross | Cerebral cortical | Post resuscitation | Cortical microcirculatory blood flow |
Crit Care Med, | domestic pigs had | microcirculatory | microvascular flows and | was markedly reduced after |
USA, [11] | untreated VF arrest for | blood flow and | PbO2 were greater and PbCO2 | epinephrine, resulting in a greater |
3 min | cortical tissue PO2 | less after vasopressin when | severity of brain ischemia after the | |
Experimental study | and PCO2 as | compared with epinephrine | ROSC in contrast to the more benign | |
(level 6, good) | Then randomized to | indicators of | A significantly greater | effects of vasopressin |
receive central venous | cortical tissue | number of cortical | ||
injections of | ischaemia | microvessels were perfused | Performed 3 sequential shocks 4 min | |
epinephrine (30 μg/kg) or | after vasopressin | after arrest and further shocks at 1 min | ||
vasopressin (0.4 units/kg) | intervals. Not current ACLS algorithm | |||
at 1 min after the start of | CPP at 4 min of | Vasopressin 20±2 mmHg | ||
cardiopulmonary | CPR | Adrenaline 21±6 mmHg | ||
resuscitation using a | Resuscitation successful in | |||
thumper | ROSC | all animals | ||
Wenzel et al., for the | 1186 patients with an out | Hospital admission | Vasopressin group 46.2% | The effects of vasopressin were similar |
European Resuscitation | of hospital arrest were | in patients with | Epinephrine group 43.0% | to those of epinephrine in the |
Council Vasopressor during | randomly assigned to: | ventricular | (P=0.48) | management of ventricular fibrillation |
Cardiopulmonary | 2 doses of vasopressin | fibrillation, | and pulseless electrical activity, but | |
Resuscitation Study Group | (40 IU) or 1 dose of | pulseless electrical | Vasopressin group 33.7% | vasopressin was superior to |
(2004), New Engl | epinephrine (1 mg). | activity | Epinephrine group 30.5% | epinephrine in patients with asystole. |
J Med, Austria, | Followed by additional | (P=0.65) | Vasopressin followed by epinephrine | |
[17] | treatment with | may be more effective than epinephrine | ||
epinephrine if needed | Asystole | Vasopressin group 29.0% | alone in the treatment of refractory | |
PRCT | Epinephrine 20.3% | cardiac arrest | ||
(level 2, excellent) | Endpoint: survival to | (P=0.02) | ||
hospital admission | ||||
Additional | Vasopressin group 25.7% | |||
Epinephrine | Epinephrine group 16.4% | |||
(P=0.002) | ||||
Pytte et al., (2006), | 17 pigs had full | Coronary perfusion | LabCPR | The haemodynamic effects of |
Resuscitation, Norway, [18] | monitoring, then 3 min | pressure (CPP) | 29 mmHg | adrenaline depend on chest |
of untreated VF arrest | ClinicalCPR | compression quality. | ||
Experimental study | Adrenaline administered | 12 mmHg | Peak dose of the delivery of adrenaline | |
(level 6, excellent) | and types of CPR given: | P<0.02 | was significantly delayed when | |
simulating clinically reported CPR | ||||
Clinical quality CPR | Cortical cerebral | LabCPR | quality compared to good quality CPR | |
manually performed | blood flow (CCBF) | 45% of baseline | (150 s vs. 90 s) | |
chest compressions (30b- | ClinicalCPR | |||
38 mm depth) with a | 35% of baseline | Adrenaline improved haemodynamics | ||
frequency | during good quality CPR in pigs, but | |||
of 100 min−1 interrupted | Femoral blood flow | LabCPR | not with quality simulating clinically | |
by a 9 s break | (FBF) | 1.2 ml/min | reported CPR performance | |
every 15 compressions | ClinicalCPR | |||
2.5 ml/min | Historical CPR Ratio | |||
P<0.02 | ||||
LabCPR | ||||
automatic hydraulic | ||||
chest compression device | ||||
(Heartsaver 2000) | ||||
maintaining consistent | ||||
chest compressions of | ||||
45 mm depth, 100 min−1 |
Author, date and country | Patient group | Outcomes | Key results | Comments |
Study type (level of evidence) | ||||
Long et al., (2005), | ILCOR worksheet | Recommendations | The use of epinephrine in cardiac arrest due to ventricular fibrillation is | |
Circulation, USA, [5] | supported by animal studies: many in the past and 3 in the last | |||
Hypothesis: Epinephrine | 5 years. (level of evidence 6). | |||
Systematic review of | (at either standard doses | It does provide adverse consequences as well, and subsequent doses do | ||
experimental studies | or higher doses) is a safe | not appear to provide as dramatic an effect in raising coronary | ||
(level 6, excellent) | and effective adjunct to | perfusion pressure (and thus chance of ROSC) as the first dose | ||
defibrillation in cardiac | However, due to the lack of human placebo-controlled trials, | |||
arrests due to ventricular | epinephrine is Class Indeterminate. For PEA and asystole, the use of | |||
fibrillation (asystole also considered) | epinephrine is also Class Indeterminate | |||
Epinephrine, 1 mg IV, given every 3–5 min, is generally accepted as | ||||
useful in cardiac arrest from all rhythms although no human trials have | ||||
compared epinephrine to placebo | ||||
Cairns et al., (1998), | 14 Dogs had induced VF | ROSC | – n=11 animals could not | The hemodynamic response to the first |
Resuscitation, USA, [7] | and were left without | be resuscitated | dose of EPI determines if the critical | |
CPR for 7.5 min | – n=3 successfully | CPP needed for ROSC and survival | ||
Experimental study | resuscitated | will occur. Repeat doses of EPI do not | ||
(level 6, fair) | CPR was then resumed | appear to improve CPP to a degree to | ||
and Epinephrine and | Only 1 animal survived after | affect clinically meaningful measures of | ||
countershocks were as | a second dose of adrenaline | outcome, i.e. successful countershock | ||
per guidelines from 1998 | and survival | |||
Success measured as | CPP | In those animals that could | ||
return of spontaneous | not be resuscitated the | |||
circulation for 30 min | increase in CPP after EPI | |||
averaged only 3±2 mmHg | ||||
– Epinephrine 1 mg was | ||||
administered when | Subsequent doses produced | |||
indicated and at | no significant effect on CPP | |||
recommended time | (2±4 mmHg) | |||
intervals | ||||
In those animals | ||||
successfully resuscitated | ||||
(n=3), the change in CPP | ||||
was 21±11 mmHg after the | ||||
first dose of EPI | ||||
Biondi-Zoccai et al., (2003), | Search for studies that | ROSC in human | Vasopressin | Did not search EMBASE |
Resuscitation, Ireland, [13] | compared treatment of | studies | 63% (78/124) | |
cardiac arrest using | Adrenaline | Details of individual studies not | ||
Meta-analysis mainly | vasopressin with either | 59% (68/116) | presented in adequate detail | |
experimental studies | placebo or adrenaline | P=0.43 | ||
(level 6, fair) | ||||
2 human studies and 33 | ROSC in animal | Vasopressin | ||
animal studies found | studies vasopressin | 84% (225/268) | ||
vs. adrenaline | Adrenaline | |||
59% (117/224) | ||||
P<0.001 | ||||
ROSC in animal | Vasopressin | |||
studies vasopressin | 93% (98/105) | |||
vs. adrenaline | Placebo | |||
19% (14/72) | ||||
P<0.001 | ||||
Klouche et al., (2003), | Twenty rats with | Survival in hours | Alpha-MNE | Both post-resuscitation myocardial |
Resuscitation, USA, [8] | ventricular fibrillation | 57±14 h | function and survival were most | |
(VF) untreated for 8 min | VPN 41±8 h | improved after administration of the | ||
Experimental study | and then CPR (at a rate | Epinephrine | selective alpha(2)-adrenergic agonist, | |
(level 6, fair) | of 200 bpm and ventilation | 31±10 h | intermediate after vasopressin and least | |
at 100 breaths per min) | Control | after epinephrine and saline placebo | ||
15±6 h | ||||
CPR protocol differed to current | ||||
Drug treatment was with: | CPP (coronary | Rise to around 30 mmHg in | resuscitation guidelines, as shocks | |
Alpha-MNE in a dose of | perfusion pressure) | all drug groups. | given 4 min after drug | |
100 μg/kg, Vasopressin | In controls rise was to | |||
in a dose of 0.4 U/kg. | 20 mmHg | |||
Epinephrine in a dose of | ||||
30 μg/kg, or saline control | Myocardial | Post-resuscitation | ||
function (left | myocardial function and | |||
ventricular | survival were significantly | |||
pressure, cardiac | better in animals treated | |||
index) | with alpha-MNE (lower | |||
LVEDP) | ||||
Lindberg et al., (2000), | 18 Swedish bred pigs | Coronary perfusion | Control | Vasopressors increased coronary |
Resuscitation, Sweden, [9] | with full monitoring after | pressure during | 7±2 mmHg | perfusion pressure and the likelihood |
a sternotomy, monitor | arrest | Adrenaline | of a return of spontaneous circulation, | |
Experimental study | insertion and chest | 45±5 mmHg | but decreased end-tidal CO2 | |
(level 6, fair) | closure. | Noradrenaline | concentration and induced a critical | |
VF arrest without CPR | 38±5 mmHg | deterioration in cardiac output and thus | ||
for 1 min and 5 min of | oxygen delivery in this model of | |||
chest compressions using | CO2 production | Control | cardiopulmonary resuscitation | |
a chest compressor | during arrest | 106±15 ml/min | ||
Adrenaline | Doesn't address question directly of | |||
Adrenaline or | 66±5 ml/min | whether adrenaline is good in cardiac | ||
noradrenaline or control | Noradrenaline | arrest, just elucidates details of what its | ||
given at that stage | 62±6 ml/min | physiologic effects are | ||
– Evaluation of changes in | CO2 production | Control | ||
end-tidal CO2 | 30 min after arrest | 211±1 ml/min | ||
concentration, CPP after | Adrenaline | |||
injection of vasopressors | 233±8 ml/min | |||
during cardiopulmonary | Noradrenaline | |||
resuscitation. | 173±14 ml/min | |||
End-tidal CO2 | ||||
concentration correlates | ||||
with pulmonary blood | ||||
flow | ||||
Holmberg et al., (2002), | A national survey of | % patients who | Adrenaline was given in | Neither in total nor in any subgroup |
Resuscitation, Sweden, [15] | ambulance organisations | received adrenaline | 42.4% of patients | did they find results indicating |
in Sweden between 1990– | beneficial effects of any of these two | |||
Retrospective cohort study | 1995 among 14065 | % patients who | 47.5% of patients were | interventions |
(level 4, unsatisfactory) | patients with out-of-hospital | were intubated | intubated | |
cardiac arrest. Of | Due to the retrospective cohort design | |||
these, resuscitation was | Survival in patients | Independent predictor for | of the study many factors determine | |
attempted in 10966 cases | with ventricular | adverse outcome | administration of adrenaline including | |
fibrillation | (OR 0.43, CI 0.27–0.66) | prolonged arrest and also certain | ||
Multivariate risk factors | ambulance crews were not licenced to | |||
for adverse outcome | Survival in patients | Independent predictor for | give it, therefore, little inference can be | |
analysed | with with a non-shockable | lower survival | drawn from these results | |
rhythm | (OR 0.30, CI 0.07–0.82) | |||
Behringer et al., (1998), | 178 adults with | ROSC | In 178 patients: | The authors controlled for the length of |
Ann Int Med, Austria, | non-traumatic, | a) n=151 (84%) | resuscitation as a confounder, but | |
[16] | normothermic VF cardiac | spontaneous circulation | despite this, many other confounders | |
arrest brought to the | was restored | might have caused this result. i.e. | ||
Retrospective cohort study | emergency department | asystolic patients tend to receive more | ||
(level 4, poor) | with an unsuccessful | Neurologic outcome | b) n=63 (42%) had | adrenaline as less time is spent on |
initial defibrillation | assessed by | favourable neurologic | defibrillation, and asystole is known to | |
cerebral | recovery. | have a poorer outcome compared to | ||
The median cumulative | performance | Patients with an unfavourable | VF | |
epinephrine dose | category (CPC) | CPC received a significantly | ||
administered was 4 mg | within 6 months | higher cumulative dose of | ||
(range, 0–50 mg) | after cardiac arrest. | epinephrine than did | ||
A CPC of 1 or 2 | patients with a favourable | |||
was defined as | CPC (4 mg compared with | |||
favourable | 1 mg) | |||
Vandycke et al., (2000), | 5 randomised trials | ROSC | Odd ratio favoured | No statistically significant beneficial |
Resuscitation, Belgium, [12] | where high dose of | High-dose adrenaline | effect of high and/or escalating doses of | |
adrenaline was compared | 1.14 (1.02–1.27) | epinephrine in comparison with | ||
Meta-analysis of | vs. standard dose | standard dose of epinephrine in | ||
randomised trials | epinephrine in cardiac | Survival to hospital | No difference | survival |
(level 1, excellent) | arrest identified from a | admission | 1.03 (0.86–1.24) | |
literature search from | The authors do not describe whether | |||
1988–1998 | Hospital discharge | Odd ratio was against high | the 5 studies used high-dose adrenaline | |
dose adrenaline | as a first dose or only after one dose | |||
Standard dose was | 0.74 (0.53–1.03) | had failed | ||
usually 1 mg adrenaline | ||||
Did not distinguish between rhythmns | ||||
High-dose adrenaline was | ||||
from 5 to 15 mg | ||||
Chen et al., (2007), | 47 rabbits with cardiac | CPP in adrenaline | 4–36 mmHg at peak | Epinephrine, but not vasopressin, |
Am J Emerg Med, China, | arrest induced by | group | value, P=0.000 | increases survival rates in this adult |
[10] | clamping the endotracheal | rabbit asphyxia model | ||
tube that did not recover | CPP in vasopressin | 9–18 mmHg at peak, | ||
Experimental study | with CPR | group | value, P=0.20 | |
(level 6, good) | ||||
Randomised to | ROSC after drug | Epinephrine 13 of 24 | ||
epinephrine group | administration | Vasopressin 2 of 23 | ||
(n=24) and vasopressin | P<0.01 | |||
group (n=23) | ||||
Ristagno et al., (2007), | 10 Yorkshire-cross | Cerebral cortical | Post resuscitation | Cortical microcirculatory blood flow |
Crit Care Med, | domestic pigs had | microcirculatory | microvascular flows and | was markedly reduced after |
USA, [11] | untreated VF arrest for | blood flow and | PbO2 were greater and PbCO2 | epinephrine, resulting in a greater |
3 min | cortical tissue PO2 | less after vasopressin when | severity of brain ischemia after the | |
Experimental study | and PCO2 as | compared with epinephrine | ROSC in contrast to the more benign | |
(level 6, good) | Then randomized to | indicators of | A significantly greater | effects of vasopressin |
receive central venous | cortical tissue | number of cortical | ||
injections of | ischaemia | microvessels were perfused | Performed 3 sequential shocks 4 min | |
epinephrine (30 μg/kg) or | after vasopressin | after arrest and further shocks at 1 min | ||
vasopressin (0.4 units/kg) | intervals. Not current ACLS algorithm | |||
at 1 min after the start of | CPP at 4 min of | Vasopressin 20±2 mmHg | ||
cardiopulmonary | CPR | Adrenaline 21±6 mmHg | ||
resuscitation using a | Resuscitation successful in | |||
thumper | ROSC | all animals | ||
Wenzel et al., for the | 1186 patients with an out | Hospital admission | Vasopressin group 46.2% | The effects of vasopressin were similar |
European Resuscitation | of hospital arrest were | in patients with | Epinephrine group 43.0% | to those of epinephrine in the |
Council Vasopressor during | randomly assigned to: | ventricular | (P=0.48) | management of ventricular fibrillation |
Cardiopulmonary | 2 doses of vasopressin | fibrillation, | and pulseless electrical activity, but | |
Resuscitation Study Group | (40 IU) or 1 dose of | pulseless electrical | Vasopressin group 33.7% | vasopressin was superior to |
(2004), New Engl | epinephrine (1 mg). | activity | Epinephrine group 30.5% | epinephrine in patients with asystole. |
J Med, Austria, | Followed by additional | (P=0.65) | Vasopressin followed by epinephrine | |
[17] | treatment with | may be more effective than epinephrine | ||
epinephrine if needed | Asystole | Vasopressin group 29.0% | alone in the treatment of refractory | |
PRCT | Epinephrine 20.3% | cardiac arrest | ||
(level 2, excellent) | Endpoint: survival to | (P=0.02) | ||
hospital admission | ||||
Additional | Vasopressin group 25.7% | |||
Epinephrine | Epinephrine group 16.4% | |||
(P=0.002) | ||||
Pytte et al., (2006), | 17 pigs had full | Coronary perfusion | LabCPR | The haemodynamic effects of |
Resuscitation, Norway, [18] | monitoring, then 3 min | pressure (CPP) | 29 mmHg | adrenaline depend on chest |
of untreated VF arrest | ClinicalCPR | compression quality. | ||
Experimental study | Adrenaline administered | 12 mmHg | Peak dose of the delivery of adrenaline | |
(level 6, excellent) | and types of CPR given: | P<0.02 | was significantly delayed when | |
simulating clinically reported CPR | ||||
Clinical quality CPR | Cortical cerebral | LabCPR | quality compared to good quality CPR | |
manually performed | blood flow (CCBF) | 45% of baseline | (150 s vs. 90 s) | |
chest compressions (30b- | ClinicalCPR | |||
38 mm depth) with a | 35% of baseline | Adrenaline improved haemodynamics | ||
frequency | during good quality CPR in pigs, but | |||
of 100 min−1 interrupted | Femoral blood flow | LabCPR | not with quality simulating clinically | |
by a 9 s break | (FBF) | 1.2 ml/min | reported CPR performance | |
every 15 compressions | ClinicalCPR | |||
2.5 ml/min | Historical CPR Ratio | |||
P<0.02 | ||||
LabCPR | ||||
automatic hydraulic | ||||
chest compression device | ||||
(Heartsaver 2000) | ||||
maintaining consistent | ||||
chest compressions of | ||||
45 mm depth, 100 min−1 |
Author, date and country | Patient group | Outcomes | Key results | Comments |
Study type (level of evidence) | ||||
Long et al., (2005), | ILCOR worksheet | Recommendations | The use of epinephrine in cardiac arrest due to ventricular fibrillation is | |
Circulation, USA, [5] | supported by animal studies: many in the past and 3 in the last | |||
Hypothesis: Epinephrine | 5 years. (level of evidence 6). | |||
Systematic review of | (at either standard doses | It does provide adverse consequences as well, and subsequent doses do | ||
experimental studies | or higher doses) is a safe | not appear to provide as dramatic an effect in raising coronary | ||
(level 6, excellent) | and effective adjunct to | perfusion pressure (and thus chance of ROSC) as the first dose | ||
defibrillation in cardiac | However, due to the lack of human placebo-controlled trials, | |||
arrests due to ventricular | epinephrine is Class Indeterminate. For PEA and asystole, the use of | |||
fibrillation (asystole also considered) | epinephrine is also Class Indeterminate | |||
Epinephrine, 1 mg IV, given every 3–5 min, is generally accepted as | ||||
useful in cardiac arrest from all rhythms although no human trials have | ||||
compared epinephrine to placebo | ||||
Cairns et al., (1998), | 14 Dogs had induced VF | ROSC | – n=11 animals could not | The hemodynamic response to the first |
Resuscitation, USA, [7] | and were left without | be resuscitated | dose of EPI determines if the critical | |
CPR for 7.5 min | – n=3 successfully | CPP needed for ROSC and survival | ||
Experimental study | resuscitated | will occur. Repeat doses of EPI do not | ||
(level 6, fair) | CPR was then resumed | appear to improve CPP to a degree to | ||
and Epinephrine and | Only 1 animal survived after | affect clinically meaningful measures of | ||
countershocks were as | a second dose of adrenaline | outcome, i.e. successful countershock | ||
per guidelines from 1998 | and survival | |||
Success measured as | CPP | In those animals that could | ||
return of spontaneous | not be resuscitated the | |||
circulation for 30 min | increase in CPP after EPI | |||
averaged only 3±2 mmHg | ||||
– Epinephrine 1 mg was | ||||
administered when | Subsequent doses produced | |||
indicated and at | no significant effect on CPP | |||
recommended time | (2±4 mmHg) | |||
intervals | ||||
In those animals | ||||
successfully resuscitated | ||||
(n=3), the change in CPP | ||||
was 21±11 mmHg after the | ||||
first dose of EPI | ||||
Biondi-Zoccai et al., (2003), | Search for studies that | ROSC in human | Vasopressin | Did not search EMBASE |
Resuscitation, Ireland, [13] | compared treatment of | studies | 63% (78/124) | |
cardiac arrest using | Adrenaline | Details of individual studies not | ||
Meta-analysis mainly | vasopressin with either | 59% (68/116) | presented in adequate detail | |
experimental studies | placebo or adrenaline | P=0.43 | ||
(level 6, fair) | ||||
2 human studies and 33 | ROSC in animal | Vasopressin | ||
animal studies found | studies vasopressin | 84% (225/268) | ||
vs. adrenaline | Adrenaline | |||
59% (117/224) | ||||
P<0.001 | ||||
ROSC in animal | Vasopressin | |||
studies vasopressin | 93% (98/105) | |||
vs. adrenaline | Placebo | |||
19% (14/72) | ||||
P<0.001 | ||||
Klouche et al., (2003), | Twenty rats with | Survival in hours | Alpha-MNE | Both post-resuscitation myocardial |
Resuscitation, USA, [8] | ventricular fibrillation | 57±14 h | function and survival were most | |
(VF) untreated for 8 min | VPN 41±8 h | improved after administration of the | ||
Experimental study | and then CPR (at a rate | Epinephrine | selective alpha(2)-adrenergic agonist, | |
(level 6, fair) | of 200 bpm and ventilation | 31±10 h | intermediate after vasopressin and least | |
at 100 breaths per min) | Control | after epinephrine and saline placebo | ||
15±6 h | ||||
CPR protocol differed to current | ||||
Drug treatment was with: | CPP (coronary | Rise to around 30 mmHg in | resuscitation guidelines, as shocks | |
Alpha-MNE in a dose of | perfusion pressure) | all drug groups. | given 4 min after drug | |
100 μg/kg, Vasopressin | In controls rise was to | |||
in a dose of 0.4 U/kg. | 20 mmHg | |||
Epinephrine in a dose of | ||||
30 μg/kg, or saline control | Myocardial | Post-resuscitation | ||
function (left | myocardial function and | |||
ventricular | survival were significantly | |||
pressure, cardiac | better in animals treated | |||
index) | with alpha-MNE (lower | |||
LVEDP) | ||||
Lindberg et al., (2000), | 18 Swedish bred pigs | Coronary perfusion | Control | Vasopressors increased coronary |
Resuscitation, Sweden, [9] | with full monitoring after | pressure during | 7±2 mmHg | perfusion pressure and the likelihood |
a sternotomy, monitor | arrest | Adrenaline | of a return of spontaneous circulation, | |
Experimental study | insertion and chest | 45±5 mmHg | but decreased end-tidal CO2 | |
(level 6, fair) | closure. | Noradrenaline | concentration and induced a critical | |
VF arrest without CPR | 38±5 mmHg | deterioration in cardiac output and thus | ||
for 1 min and 5 min of | oxygen delivery in this model of | |||
chest compressions using | CO2 production | Control | cardiopulmonary resuscitation | |
a chest compressor | during arrest | 106±15 ml/min | ||
Adrenaline | Doesn't address question directly of | |||
Adrenaline or | 66±5 ml/min | whether adrenaline is good in cardiac | ||
noradrenaline or control | Noradrenaline | arrest, just elucidates details of what its | ||
given at that stage | 62±6 ml/min | physiologic effects are | ||
– Evaluation of changes in | CO2 production | Control | ||
end-tidal CO2 | 30 min after arrest | 211±1 ml/min | ||
concentration, CPP after | Adrenaline | |||
injection of vasopressors | 233±8 ml/min | |||
during cardiopulmonary | Noradrenaline | |||
resuscitation. | 173±14 ml/min | |||
End-tidal CO2 | ||||
concentration correlates | ||||
with pulmonary blood | ||||
flow | ||||
Holmberg et al., (2002), | A national survey of | % patients who | Adrenaline was given in | Neither in total nor in any subgroup |
Resuscitation, Sweden, [15] | ambulance organisations | received adrenaline | 42.4% of patients | did they find results indicating |
in Sweden between 1990– | beneficial effects of any of these two | |||
Retrospective cohort study | 1995 among 14065 | % patients who | 47.5% of patients were | interventions |
(level 4, unsatisfactory) | patients with out-of-hospital | were intubated | intubated | |
cardiac arrest. Of | Due to the retrospective cohort design | |||
these, resuscitation was | Survival in patients | Independent predictor for | of the study many factors determine | |
attempted in 10966 cases | with ventricular | adverse outcome | administration of adrenaline including | |
fibrillation | (OR 0.43, CI 0.27–0.66) | prolonged arrest and also certain | ||
Multivariate risk factors | ambulance crews were not licenced to | |||
for adverse outcome | Survival in patients | Independent predictor for | give it, therefore, little inference can be | |
analysed | with with a non-shockable | lower survival | drawn from these results | |
rhythm | (OR 0.30, CI 0.07–0.82) | |||
Behringer et al., (1998), | 178 adults with | ROSC | In 178 patients: | The authors controlled for the length of |
Ann Int Med, Austria, | non-traumatic, | a) n=151 (84%) | resuscitation as a confounder, but | |
[16] | normothermic VF cardiac | spontaneous circulation | despite this, many other confounders | |
arrest brought to the | was restored | might have caused this result. i.e. | ||
Retrospective cohort study | emergency department | asystolic patients tend to receive more | ||
(level 4, poor) | with an unsuccessful | Neurologic outcome | b) n=63 (42%) had | adrenaline as less time is spent on |
initial defibrillation | assessed by | favourable neurologic | defibrillation, and asystole is known to | |
cerebral | recovery. | have a poorer outcome compared to | ||
The median cumulative | performance | Patients with an unfavourable | VF | |
epinephrine dose | category (CPC) | CPC received a significantly | ||
administered was 4 mg | within 6 months | higher cumulative dose of | ||
(range, 0–50 mg) | after cardiac arrest. | epinephrine than did | ||
A CPC of 1 or 2 | patients with a favourable | |||
was defined as | CPC (4 mg compared with | |||
favourable | 1 mg) | |||
Vandycke et al., (2000), | 5 randomised trials | ROSC | Odd ratio favoured | No statistically significant beneficial |
Resuscitation, Belgium, [12] | where high dose of | High-dose adrenaline | effect of high and/or escalating doses of | |
adrenaline was compared | 1.14 (1.02–1.27) | epinephrine in comparison with | ||
Meta-analysis of | vs. standard dose | standard dose of epinephrine in | ||
randomised trials | epinephrine in cardiac | Survival to hospital | No difference | survival |
(level 1, excellent) | arrest identified from a | admission | 1.03 (0.86–1.24) | |
literature search from | The authors do not describe whether | |||
1988–1998 | Hospital discharge | Odd ratio was against high | the 5 studies used high-dose adrenaline | |
dose adrenaline | as a first dose or only after one dose | |||
Standard dose was | 0.74 (0.53–1.03) | had failed | ||
usually 1 mg adrenaline | ||||
Did not distinguish between rhythmns | ||||
High-dose adrenaline was | ||||
from 5 to 15 mg | ||||
Chen et al., (2007), | 47 rabbits with cardiac | CPP in adrenaline | 4–36 mmHg at peak | Epinephrine, but not vasopressin, |
Am J Emerg Med, China, | arrest induced by | group | value, P=0.000 | increases survival rates in this adult |
[10] | clamping the endotracheal | rabbit asphyxia model | ||
tube that did not recover | CPP in vasopressin | 9–18 mmHg at peak, | ||
Experimental study | with CPR | group | value, P=0.20 | |
(level 6, good) | ||||
Randomised to | ROSC after drug | Epinephrine 13 of 24 | ||
epinephrine group | administration | Vasopressin 2 of 23 | ||
(n=24) and vasopressin | P<0.01 | |||
group (n=23) | ||||
Ristagno et al., (2007), | 10 Yorkshire-cross | Cerebral cortical | Post resuscitation | Cortical microcirculatory blood flow |
Crit Care Med, | domestic pigs had | microcirculatory | microvascular flows and | was markedly reduced after |
USA, [11] | untreated VF arrest for | blood flow and | PbO2 were greater and PbCO2 | epinephrine, resulting in a greater |
3 min | cortical tissue PO2 | less after vasopressin when | severity of brain ischemia after the | |
Experimental study | and PCO2 as | compared with epinephrine | ROSC in contrast to the more benign | |
(level 6, good) | Then randomized to | indicators of | A significantly greater | effects of vasopressin |
receive central venous | cortical tissue | number of cortical | ||
injections of | ischaemia | microvessels were perfused | Performed 3 sequential shocks 4 min | |
epinephrine (30 μg/kg) or | after vasopressin | after arrest and further shocks at 1 min | ||
vasopressin (0.4 units/kg) | intervals. Not current ACLS algorithm | |||
at 1 min after the start of | CPP at 4 min of | Vasopressin 20±2 mmHg | ||
cardiopulmonary | CPR | Adrenaline 21±6 mmHg | ||
resuscitation using a | Resuscitation successful in | |||
thumper | ROSC | all animals | ||
Wenzel et al., for the | 1186 patients with an out | Hospital admission | Vasopressin group 46.2% | The effects of vasopressin were similar |
European Resuscitation | of hospital arrest were | in patients with | Epinephrine group 43.0% | to those of epinephrine in the |
Council Vasopressor during | randomly assigned to: | ventricular | (P=0.48) | management of ventricular fibrillation |
Cardiopulmonary | 2 doses of vasopressin | fibrillation, | and pulseless electrical activity, but | |
Resuscitation Study Group | (40 IU) or 1 dose of | pulseless electrical | Vasopressin group 33.7% | vasopressin was superior to |
(2004), New Engl | epinephrine (1 mg). | activity | Epinephrine group 30.5% | epinephrine in patients with asystole. |
J Med, Austria, | Followed by additional | (P=0.65) | Vasopressin followed by epinephrine | |
[17] | treatment with | may be more effective than epinephrine | ||
epinephrine if needed | Asystole | Vasopressin group 29.0% | alone in the treatment of refractory | |
PRCT | Epinephrine 20.3% | cardiac arrest | ||
(level 2, excellent) | Endpoint: survival to | (P=0.02) | ||
hospital admission | ||||
Additional | Vasopressin group 25.7% | |||
Epinephrine | Epinephrine group 16.4% | |||
(P=0.002) | ||||
Pytte et al., (2006), | 17 pigs had full | Coronary perfusion | LabCPR | The haemodynamic effects of |
Resuscitation, Norway, [18] | monitoring, then 3 min | pressure (CPP) | 29 mmHg | adrenaline depend on chest |
of untreated VF arrest | ClinicalCPR | compression quality. | ||
Experimental study | Adrenaline administered | 12 mmHg | Peak dose of the delivery of adrenaline | |
(level 6, excellent) | and types of CPR given: | P<0.02 | was significantly delayed when | |
simulating clinically reported CPR | ||||
Clinical quality CPR | Cortical cerebral | LabCPR | quality compared to good quality CPR | |
manually performed | blood flow (CCBF) | 45% of baseline | (150 s vs. 90 s) | |
chest compressions (30b- | ClinicalCPR | |||
38 mm depth) with a | 35% of baseline | Adrenaline improved haemodynamics | ||
frequency | during good quality CPR in pigs, but | |||
of 100 min−1 interrupted | Femoral blood flow | LabCPR | not with quality simulating clinically | |
by a 9 s break | (FBF) | 1.2 ml/min | reported CPR performance | |
every 15 compressions | ClinicalCPR | |||
2.5 ml/min | Historical CPR Ratio | |||
P<0.02 | ||||
LabCPR | ||||
automatic hydraulic | ||||
chest compression device | ||||
(Heartsaver 2000) | ||||
maintaining consistent | ||||
chest compressions of | ||||
45 mm depth, 100 min−1 |
6. Results
The 2005 European Resuscitation Council Guidelines (ERC [3]) and the American Heart Association guidelines [4] state that for patients suffering a cardiac arrest with PEA or asystole, 1 mg of adrenaline should be given as soon as intravascular access is achieved and for every 3–5 min or every other loop of the algorithm. For VF/VT, adrenaline should be given after the second failed shock. However, the ERC state that ‘despite the widespread use of adrenaline during resuscitation, and several studies involving vasopressin, there is no placebo controlled study that shows that the routine use of any vasopressor at any stage during human cardiac arrest increases survival to hospital discharge. Current evidence is insufficient to support or refute the routine use of any particular drug or sequence of drugs. Despite the lack of human data, the use of adrenaline is still recommended, based largely on animal data.’ The evidence that they base this recommendation on are the worksheets produced by Long and Paradis [5] and Wenzel [6]. Long concludes that adrenaline use is supported by recent animal studies but that no human studies compare it to placebo. Also, they note that it produces adverse consequences and also subsequent doses are less effective. They give the level of evidence for adrenaline for VF or PEA/asystole as ‘indeterminate’ which is defined as ‘minimal evidence available, results inconsistent and contradictory and results not compelling’
Cairns and Niemann [7] studied 14 dogs who had VF for 7.5 min prior to resuscitation attempts. Three dogs survived and adrenaline increased their coronary perfusion pressure (CPP) by 21±11 mmHg. However, in the remainder, adrenaline only increased the CPP by 3±2 mmHg. Also subsequent doses had minimal effect on CPP.
Klouche et al. [8] studied 20 rats using differing resuscitative drugs after VF. They found that adrenaline impaired post-resuscitation myocardial function more than vasopressin and a selective alpha-agonist, and this function was similar to saline-placebo controls. However, survival was superior with adrenaline than with controls.
Lindberg et al. [9] in 18 pigs who had a sternotomy and chest closure, and then VF, showed that while either adrenaline or noradrenaline increased CPP during the arrest up to 45 mmHg compared to only 7 mmHg for controls, it significantly impaired cardiac output and oxygen delivery after successful resuscitation.
Chen et al. [10], in 47 rabbits arrested after ET-tube clamping, found that adrenaline increased CPP from 4 to 38 mmHg whereas vasopressin failed to do this. Half the rabbits given adrenaline survived compared to 10% of the vasopressin group.
Ristagno et al. [11] showed significantly worse cerebral blood flows and oxygenation with adrenaline compared to vasopressin in 10 pigs after cardiac arrest.
Vandycke and Martens [12] performed a meta-analysis of five RCTs of high-dose adrenaline vs. standard dose adrenaline. They found a superior odds of return of spontaneous circulation but no difference to hospital admission and a poorer outcome to hospital discharge with higher doses of adrenaline. Biondi-Zoccai et al. [13] performed a meta-analysis of vasopressin vs. adrenaline, finding only two human studies but demonstrating superiority of vasopressin across 33 animal studies. Zhong and Dorian [14] performed a review of adrenaline and vasopressin in cardiac arrest stating that adrenaline had many adverse effects post-resuscitation including myocardial dysfunction, worsening arrhythmias and increased myocardial oxygen demand and that human studies in this area were urgently needed.
Holmberg et al. [15] in a survey of 11,000 patients in patient-care who had arrested out-of-hospital looked at risk factors for adverse survival. They found that adrenaline was a predictor of adverse outcome for asystolic and VF arrests. Behringer et al. [16] reported that in 178 patients who survived an out-of-hospital arrest that adrenaline cumulative dose was much higher in those patients with a poor neurological outcome. The best human study in this area compared vasopressin with adrenaline but had no placebo group. Wenzel et al. [17] randomized over 1000 patients who arrested out-of-hospital to vasopressin or adrenaline. There was no difference in VF arrests but asystole and combined vasopressin and adrenaline showed better survival to hospital admission.
Pytte et al. [18] was struck by the fact that the benefit of adrenaline seen in experimental studies had not translated into clinical studies and hypothesised that this may be due to the difference between clinical CPR and the CPR obtained in a laboratory by hydraulic-compression devices. They compared these types of CPR and found that while labCPR produced significant haemodynamic effects with adrenaline, no haemodynamic increases were seen with clinicalCPR. Also the peak adrenaline level took 2.5 min to achieve in the clinicalCPR group after a single administration.
7. Clinical bottom line
The European Resuscitation Council and the American Heart Association both recommend 1 mg of adrenaline as soon as pulseless electrical activity or asystole is identified or after the second failed shock if the rhythm is VF/pulseless VT. However, they acknowledge that the evidence behind this recommendation is lacking and based entirely on animal studies which have as yet not been successfully replicated in human studies and thus the evidence for this recommendation is ‘indeterminate’. Thus, in the particular situation of a patient who arrests shortly after cardiac surgery where the chance of restoring sinus rhythm either by defibrillation or by an emergency re-sternotomy is high, and where adrenaline could in this situation be highly dangerous once sinus rhythm is restored, we recommend that 1 mg of adrenaline forms no part of the resuscitation protocol for patients after cardiac surgery.