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The state successfully transformed the idea of individualism into a synecdoche for a negative West, as the discourse surrounding this meaning began to play an important role in China’s reinvention of the power relationship between East and West, as well as that between the state and its intelligentsia. In other words, the state had a political stake in presenting the idea of individualism to its people as un-Chinese.
—Lydia H. Liu, “Translingual Practice”1Close
Chinese culture is often characterized as a culture of obligation rather than individual freedom. This characterization is not just a stereotype; it is rooted in various nineteenth-and twentieth-century constructions of Chinese identity, as such an identity is compared to that of the “West.”2Close Such a characterization affects scholarship, diplomacy, and public policy. For example, the modern Chinese state, among other Asian contemporaries, has resisted paying attention to charges of “universal human rights” violations on grounds that such rights are bound up in culturally specific views on individualism—views that are incompatible with traditional “Asian values.”3Close
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