...This chapter examines the history of the forms of consents in the United States. It discusses the rules for proof of consent during the 1950s and 1960s and the opposition of National Institutes of Health (NIH) researchers to patient-generation documentation, even after the passage of the 1962 FDA...

...This introductory chapter sets out the book's purpose, which is to contribute to the history of truth and falsity. The chapters reconstruct the often-idiosyncratic standards for truth, proof, and evidence in Descartes, Pascal, and Leibniz, standards far removed from our own. All three stressed...

...This chapter shows how applying principles of proof to legal propositions clarifies the nature of legal indeterminacy. Legal though often assumes that interpretative uncertainty resulting from application of a theory leads to indeterminacy in the theory’s ability to resolve disputes...

... what kinds of testimony counted as valid proof. am Wald Georg anecdotes experiential medical medicine as medication Terra Sigillata Amwaldina trials on poison Berthold Andreas Montanus Johannes testimonials on drug efficacies alchemy Caravita’s oil Clement VII pope Libavius Andreas Mattioli...

... confrontations of witnesses and accused. Rossi also resorted to the less common strategy of using torture, in Possenti’s presence, to reconfirm Andrea Pallada’s contested testimony. Although Rossi’s case occasionally produced the requisite legal proof on various points (pairs of witnesses) and caught Possenti...

... of instruments and he shifted scientific discourse from a poetics of the probable to a poetics of proof. In An Attempt to Prove the Motion of the Earth, Hooke indicated that we had somehow found the means to reach and see what had hitherto remained inaccessible. Fontenelle Bernard le Bovier de...

... probable for the theoretical voyage, and the poetics of experimental proof for the optical voyage. It also discusses the fictionalization of narratives and the factualization of narratives and analyzes the relevance between fiction and hypothesis. Chapelain Jean Huygens Christiaan Fontenelle Bernard le...

...This chapter looks at the ways in which mathematicians and logicians rethought the nature of mathematical proof during the first four decades of the twentieth century. Three styles of thinking about mathematics emerged: logicism, intuitionism, and formalism, and all three styles can be seen...

...This chapter describes the formal structure of proof for facts in the law as involving principles of admissibility (what counts toward establishing a claim), principles of weight or significance (how much the admissible evidence counts toward establishing a claim), standards of proof (how much...

...This chapter explores some contexts in which the law self-consciously applies at least some of the framework for proof of facts to the initial proof of law. The most illuminating context is the proof of foreign law, which until roughly the mid-1960s generally followed the strict procedures...

...This chapter explores the considerations that enter into the selection of standards of proof for legal claims. It lays out the considerations that have led the American legal system to embrace a standard of proof beyond a reasonable doubt for facts in criminal cases, a standard of proof...

...This is a book about the general structure of proof, how law sometimes recognizes that structure, how it often does not, and what might happen if legal scholars, jurists, and lawyers think about that structure in unfamiliar contexts. It identifies the essential elements of the process of proof...

... as if they were not matters for public decision. Related is the tendency to use scientific burdens of proof (for instance, when evaluating climate change) when the choice of a burden of proof is itself a normative issue and scientific burdens are rarely appropriate outside science. Overuse of reason has sapped...

... about God in the mode of Wisdom). The "mode of Wisdom" was his appeal to logical proof rather than a more usual appeal to the authority of the Bible and the Church Fathers. William saw this method as preaching to the converted, whereas he intended to address those who did not necessarily agree...

... and defend themselves against their enemies. Men of letters generated “living proof” by inoculating their own children and depicted themselves and their compatriots as ideal fathers: enlightened parents who relied upon both reason and emotion. They represented the man of letters as a devoted and trustworthy...

...This chapter sets the framework for the book by highlighting, through examples, the law's very different treatment of the proof of legal and factual questions. It outlines how principles of proof can and do apply to questions of law, even if the law chooses not to acknowledge them...

...This chapter explores, in some concrete settings, how applying principles of proof to legal questions illuminates debates in interpretative theory, using examples drawn both from legal scholarship and from case law. The point is not to support, or even advance, any particular theory...