... or irrational, as justified or unjustified; and it is because they are rational or justified, according to such a way of evaluating things, that they happen. This is a highly controversial thesis; it amounts to saying that value has a causal role to play in nature. It goes against the orthodox view...

...Sophisticated opposition to the arousal theory begins with the thought that a causal characterization of the sort it provides could never be sufficient to analyze expression. This chapter considers two different arguments to this conclusion. The first argues directly that the relation between...

...In analysing the impact of labour relations, particularly on issues regarding efficiency, employment, inflation, and economic growth need to be considered. This approach however does not take the dual-link causality of the possible effects of labour relations on performance into account. The first...

... R² for auxiliary runs, and an autoregressive term have been used to account for the presence of autocorrelation. This chapter looks into the mixed conclusions derived from the dual-chain causality attributed to the performance of labour relations. Aside for policy implications, this chapter presents...

... capitalist class that is incited to invest. If this argument is correct, primary causality between GDP, trade, and investment should run from investment to trade to GDP. Granger causality tests, panel regressions, and standard times series tests are used to test the trade-led and investment-led growth...

... nature of reality. This chapter explains the beginningless and processual nature of reality and discusses his views on rejecting, even the ending of reality. It discusses the significance and diversity of causal theories in Indian philosophy, and then elucidates the notion of exterior causality...

... and animal agents and why we attribute actions to agents. It then identifies the feature that explains the human subjection to imperatives. Every agent must be the cause of her own movements, but a human agent, when she chooses actions, chooses the principles of her own causality. That feature of human...

...This chapter focuses on why cause matters. It argues that causal relations hold across space, time, and individuals; therefore, the logic of causality is the best guide to prediction, explanation, and action. Not only is it the best guide around; it is the guide that people use. People are designed...

...This chapter discusses three kinds of reasoning that illustrate the central role of causality. The first part shows that causal considerations enter into how people think about some mathematical equations, that their thinking about equations reflects an underlying causal structure. The second part...

...One of the main problems in establishing causality in medicine is going from a correlation to a causal claim. For example, heavy smoking is strongly correlated with lung cancer, but so is heavy drinking. There is normally held to be a causal link in the former case, but not in the latter. The Russo...

...A realist, powers‐based metaphysics is very much on the table in contemporary metaphysics, and is beginning to take hold in philosophy of mind and philosophy of science. On this picture, causality is (roughly) a matter of the powers that things have to effect change(s) in other things. The realist...

...What is the connection between general causal relations, like the relation between heating butter and butter melting, and singular causal relations, like the relation between my heating butter on my stove last night and that butter melting? The generalist view holds that singular causal relations...

... but to a space-time point, so that an event may have more than one chance at the same time—it may even be certain relative to one space-time point but ‘at the same time’ completely uncertain relative to another. This renders Bell’s principle of Local Causality either inapplicable or intuitively unmotivated...

... causal. After an outline of the evolving definition of “causality” in the social sciences, contemporary Rubin causality or counterfactual causality is introduced. Under the assumption that subjects were randomly assigned to the treatment and control groups, Rubin’s causal model allows one to estimate...

...This chapter argues against William Lane Craig's theory of causality and against a posteriori and a priori arguments for a cause of the Big Bang singularity. It highlights some prima facie problems with a posteriori arguments for a cause of the Big Bang singularity, a priori arguments for a cause...

...An answer to the fact that it is very complex to find convincing grounds for considering in universal deterministic uniformity (much less universal causality) has been to suggest that causality is indeed universal: all events are caused—but many, if not all, causal laws are statistical...

...After acknowledging Hempel as an ‘early partisan’ of the causal theory of action, Davidson takes issue with him on whether explanations that rationalize actions make essential appeal to laws. Apart from clarifying in which sense, and to what degree, laws are ‘implicit’ in rationalizations, Davidson...

...-ary” relations); relations are abstract objects and, therefore, do not enter into causal relations. (Note that it follows from the first thesis that there are no events, because an event would be neither a substance nor a relation.) The second set of theses has to do with causation. They may...

... causality and weak exogeneity. Granger ( 1969 ) considered the causality of y on x in regard to two optimal (minimum mean squared error) predictions of x  _t, (i) using the information set of x...

... influence or condition the manner in which the text is produced’. First, it is necessary to identify all those elements in the text of Castle Rackrent which clearly point to the presence of the kind of extratextual causality which would constitute this logic. Secondly, it is necessary...