Energy, the Subtle Concept: The discovery of Feynman's blocks from Leibniz to Einstein
Energy, the Subtle Concept: The discovery of Feynman's blocks from Leibniz to Einstein
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Abstract
Energy is explained through its history. Newton missed ‘energy’, Leibniz defined kinetic energy, and potential energy emerged from ideas about stored ‘live force’, the concept of ‘work’, analyses of vibrating strings, the figure of the Earth, and so forth. The Principles of Virtual Work, Least Action, and D’Alembert underpinned Lagrange’s Analytical Mechanics. Daniel Bernoulli appreciated energy-in-the-round, and quantified the ‘live force’ in coal. Rumford’s experiments on canon-boring showed an ‘inexhaustible’ source of frictional heating, but didn’t immediately topple caloric theory. Clairaut, Laplace, and Green founded potential function theory. Hamilton brought in the ‘Hamiltonian’, and his approach led into Schrödinger’s wave mechanics. Carnot defined an ideal heat-engine (Carnot cycle) and realized temperature was the parameter. Watt’s steam engine started the Industrial Revolution, but why was it discovered in just one place, at one time? Mayer and Joule crossed the ‘category error’, merging mechanics and heat. Helmholtz invoked Kantian ‘cause equals effect’ to justify conservation of ‘energy’. Maxwell was the first to use probability theory in physics; Boltzmann posited discrete energy levels. The Maxwell–Boltzmann kinetic theory brought in a deeper understanding of energy. Clausius and Thomson (Kelvin) discovered the First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics. Einstein’s Principle of Relativity led to the famous E = mc2. The force and energy views are compared, and difficult questions are examined: why are there two forms of energy–kinetic and potential–and is one more fundamental? Why does kinetic energy have the form 1/2mv2? What are action, temperature, and the Hamiltonian? What is energy?
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Front Matter
- 1 Introduction: Feynman’s Blocks
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2
The Quest for Perpetually Acting Machines
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3
Vis viva, the First ‘Block’ of Energy
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4
Heat in the Seventeenth Century
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5
Heat in the Eighteenth Century
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6
The Discovery of Latent and Specific Heats
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7
A Hundred and One Years of Mechanics: Newton to Lagrange via Daniel Bernoulli
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8
A Tale of Two Countries: the Rise of the Steam Engine and the Caloric Theory of Heat
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9
Rumford, Davy, and Young
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10
Naked Heat: the Gas Laws and the Specific Heats of Gases
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11
Two Contrasting Characters: Fourier and Herapath
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12
Sadi Carnot
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13
Hamilton and Green
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14
The Mechanical Equivalent of Heat: Mayer, Joule, and Waterston
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15
Faraday and Helmholtz
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16
The Laws of Thermodynamics: Thomson and Clausius
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17
A Forward Look
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18
Impossible Things, Difficult Things
- 19 Conclusions: What Is Energy?
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End Matter
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