
Contents
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11.1 Irreversible, Reversible, and Quasi-Static Processes 11.1 Irreversible, Reversible, and Quasi-Static Processes
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11.2 Heat Engines 11.2 Heat Engines
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11.2.1 Consequences of the First Law 11.2.1 Consequences of the First Law
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11.2.2 Consequences of the Second Law 11.2.2 Consequences of the Second Law
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11.3 Maximum Efficiency 11.3 Maximum Efficiency
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11.4 Refrigerators and Air Conditioners 11.4 Refrigerators and Air Conditioners
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11.5 Heat Pumps 11.5 Heat Pumps
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11.6 The Carnot Cycle 11.6 The Carnot Cycle
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11.7 Alternative Formulations of the Second Law 11.7 Alternative Formulations of the Second Law
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11.8 Positive and Negative Temperatures 11.8 Positive and Negative Temperatures
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11.8.1 Both temperatures positive, 11.8.1 Both temperatures positive,
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11.8.1.1 Heat engines 11.8.1.1 Heat engines
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11.8.1.2 Refrigerators and air conditioners 11.8.1.2 Refrigerators and air conditioners
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11.8.1.3 Heat pumps 11.8.1.3 Heat pumps
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11.8.1.4 Summary for (positive temperatures) 11.8.1.4 Summary for (positive temperatures)
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11.8.2 The lower temperature is positive, but the higher temperature is negative, βH < 0 < βL 11.8.2 The lower temperature is positive, but the higher temperature is negative, βH < 0 < βL
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11.8.2.1 Heat engines, βH < 0 < βL 11.8.2.1 Heat engines, βH < 0 < βL
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11.8.2.2 Refrigerators and air conditioners, βH < 0 < βL 11.8.2.2 Refrigerators and air conditioners, βH < 0 < βL
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11.8.2.3 Heat pumps, βH < 0 < βL 11.8.2.3 Heat pumps, βH < 0 < βL
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11.8.2.4 Summary for βL > 0 > βH 11.8.2.4 Summary for βL > 0 > βH
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11.8.3 Both temperatures negative, βH < βL < 0 11.8.3 Both temperatures negative, βH < βL < 0
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11.8.3.1 Heat engines, βH < βL < 0 11.8.3.1 Heat engines, βH < βL < 0
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11.8.3.2 Refrigerators, βH < βL < 0 11.8.3.2 Refrigerators, βH < βL < 0
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11.8.3.3 Heat pumps, 11.8.3.3 Heat pumps,
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11.8.3.4 Summary, 11.8.3.4 Summary,
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11.9 Problems 11.9 Problems
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PROBLEM 11.1 Efficiency of real heat engines PROBLEM 11.1 Efficiency of real heat engines
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PROBLEM 11.2 Maximum work from temperature differences PROBLEM 11.2 Maximum work from temperature differences
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PROBLEM 11.3 Work from finite heat reservoirs PROBLEM 11.3 Work from finite heat reservoirs
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11 Thermodynamic Processes
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Published:December 2019
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Abstract
This chapter begins by defining terms critical to understanding thermodynamics: reversible, irreversible, and quasi-static. Because heat engines are central to thermodynamic principles, they are described in detail, along with their operation as refrigerators and heat pumps. Various expressions of efficiency for such engines lead to alternative expressions of the second law of thermodynamics. A Carnot cycle is discussed in detail as an example of an idealized heat engine with optimum efficiency. A special case, called negative temperatures, where temperatures actually exceed infinity, provides further insights. In this chapter we will discuss thermodynamic processes, which concern the consequences of thermodynamics for things that happen in the real world.
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